the world had now arrived at one of those supreme moments of history when every thing is transformed between the end of one period and the beginning of another: in the east turkey, in the south spain, in the west france, and in the north german, all were going to assume, together with the title of great powers, that influence which they were destined to exert in the future over the secondary states. accordingly we too, with alexander vi, will cast a rapid glance over them, and see what were their respective situations in regard to italy, which they all coveted as a prize.
constantine, palaeologos dragozes, besieged by three hundred thousand turks, after having appealed in vain for aid to the whole of christendom, had not been willing to survive the loss of his empire, and had been found in the midst of the dead, close to the tophana gate; and on the 30th of may, 1453, mahomet ii had made his entry into constantinople, where, after a reign which had earned for him the surname of 'fatile', or the conqueror, he had died leaving two sons, the elder of whom had ascended the throne under the name of bajazet ii.
the accession of the new sultan, however, had not taken place with the tranquillity which his right as elder brother and his father's choice of him should have promised. his younger brother, d'jem, better known under the name of zizimeh, had argued that whereas he was born in the purple—that is, born during the reign of mahomet—bajazet was born prior to his epoch, and was therefore the son of a private individual. this was rather a poor trick; but where force is all and right is naught, it was good enough to stir up a war. the two brothers, each at the head of an army, met accordingly in asia in 1482. d'jem was defeated after a seven hours' fight, and pursued by his brother, who gave him no time to rally his army: he was obliged to embark from cilicia, and took refuge in rhodes, where he implored the protection of the knights of st. john. they, not daring to give him an asylum in their island so near to asia, sent him to france, where they had him carefully guarded in one of their commanderies, in spite of the urgency of cait bey, sultan of egypt, who, having revolted against bajazet, desired to have the young prince in his army to give his rebellion the appearance of legitimate warfare. the same demand, moreover, with the same political object, had been made successively by mathias corvinus, king of hungary, by ferdinand, king of aragon and sicily, and by ferdinand, king of naples.
on his side bajazet, who knew all the importance of such a rival, if he once allied himself with any one of the princes with whom he was at war, had sent ambassadors to charles viii, offering, if he would consent to keep d'jem with him, to give him a considerable pension, and to give to france the sovereignty of the holy land, so soon as jerusalem should be conquered by the sultan of egypt. the king of france had accepted these terms.
but then innocent viii had intervened, and in his turn had claimed d'jem, ostensibly to give support by the claims of the refugee to a crusade which he was preaching against the turks, but in reality to appropriate the pension of 40,000 ducats to be given by bajazet to any one of the christian princes who would undertake to be his brother's gaoler. charles viii had not dared to refuse to the spiritual head of christendom a request supported by such holy reasons; and therefore d'jem had quitted france, accompanied by the grand master d'aubusson, under whose direct charge he was; but his guardian had consented, for the sake of a cardinal's hat, to yield up his prisoner. thus, on the 13th of march, 1489, the unhappy young man, cynosure of so many interested eyes, made his solemn entry into rome, mounted on a superb horse, clothed in a magnificent oriental costume, between the prior of auvergne, nephew of the grand master d'aubusson, and francesco cibo, the son of the pope.
after this he had remained there, and bajazet, faithful to promises which it was so much his interest to fulfil, had punctually paid to the sovereign pontiff a pension of 40,000 ducats.
so much for turkey.
ferdinand and isabella were reigning in spain, and were laying the foundations of that vast power which was destined, five-and-twenty years later, to make charles v declare that the sun never set on his dominions. in fact, these two sovereigns, on whom history has bestowed the name of catholic, had reconquered in succession nearly all spain, and driven the moors out of granada, their last entrenchment; while two men of genius, bartolome diaz and christopher columbus, had succeeded, much to the profit of spain, the one in recovering a lost world, the other in conquering a world yet unknown. they had accordingly, thanks to their victories in the ancient world and their discoveries in the new, acquired an influence at the court of rome which had never been enjoyed by any of their predecessors.
so much for spain.
in france, charles viii had succeeded his father, louis xi, on the 30th of august, 1483. louis by dint of executions, had tranquillised his kingdom and smoothed the way for a child who ascended the throne under the regency of a woman. and the regency had been a glorious one, and had put down the pretensions of princes of the blood, put an end to civil wars, and united to the crown all that yet remained of the great independent fiefs. the result was that at the epoch where we now are, here was charles viii, about twenty-two years of age, a prince (if we are to believe la tremouille) little of body but great of heart; a child (if we are to believe commines) only now making his first flight from the nest, destitute of both sense and money, feeble in person, full of self-will, and consorting rather with fools than with the wise; lastly, if we are to believe guicciardini, who was an italian, might well have brought a somewhat partial judgment to bear upon the subject, a young man of little wit concerning the actions of men, but carried away by an ardent desire for rule and the acquisition of glory, a desire based far more on his shallow character and impetuosity than on any consciousness of genius: he was an enemy to all fatigue and all business, and when he tried to give his attention to it he showed himself always totally wanting in prudence and judgment. if anything in him appeared at first sight to be worthy of praise, on a closer inspection it was found to be something nearer akin to vice than to virtue. he was liberal, it is true, but without thought, with no measure and no discrimination. he was sometimes inflexible in will; but this was through obstinacy rather than a constant mind; and what his flatterers called goodness deserved far more the name of insensibility to injuries or poverty of spirit.
as to his physical appearance, if we are to believe the same author, it was still less admirable, and answered marvellously to his weakness of mind and character. he was small, with a large head, a short thick neck, broad chest, and high shoulders; his thighs and legs were long and thin; and as his face also was ugly—and was only redeemed by the dignity and force of his glance—and all his limbs were disproportionate with one another, he had rather the appearance of a monster than a man. such was he whom fortune was destined to make a conqueror, for whom heaven was reserving more glory than he had power to carry.
so much for france.
the imperial throne was occupied by frederic iii, who had been rightly named the peaceful, not for the reason that he had always maintained peace, but because, having constantly been beaten, he had always been forced to make it. the first proof he had given of this very philosophical forbearance was during his journey to rome, whither he betook himself to be consecrated. in crossing the apennines he was attacked by brigands. they robbed him, but he made no pursuit. and so, encouraged by example and by the impunity of lesser thieves, the greater ones soon took part in the robberies. amurath seized part of hungary. mathias corvinus took lower austria, and frederic consoled himself for these usurpations by repeating the maxim, forgetfulness is the best cure for the losses we suffer. at the time we have now reached, he had just, after a reign of fifty-three years, affianced his son maximilian to marie of burgundy and had put under the ban of the empire his son-in-law, albert of bavaria, who laid claim to the ownership of the tyrol. he was therefore too full of his family affairs to be troubled about italy. besides, he was busy looking for a motto for the house of austria, an occupation of the highest importance for a man of the character of frederic iii. this motto, which charles v was destined almost to render true, was at last discovered, to the great joy of the old emperor, who, judging that he had nothing more to do on earth after he had given this last proof of sagacity, died on the 19th of august, 1493; leaving the empire to his son maximilian.
this motto was simply founded on the five vowels, a, e, i, o, u, the initial letters of these five words
"austriae est imperare orbi universo."
this means
"it is the destiny of austria to rule over the whole world."
so much for germany.
now that we have cast a glance over the four nations which were on the way, as we said before, to become european powers, let us turn our attention to those secondary states which formed a circle more contiguous to rome, and whose business it was to serve as armour, so to speak, to the spiritual queen of the world, should it please any of these political giants whom we have described to make encroachments with a view to an attack, on the seas or the mountains, the adriatic gulf or the alps, the mediterranean or the apennines.
these were the kingdom of naples, the duchy of milan, the magnificent republic of florence, and the most serene republic of venice.
the kingdom of naples was in the hands of the old ferdinand, whose birth was not only illegitimate, but probably also well within the prohibited degrees. his father, alfonso of aragon, received his crown from giovanna of naples, who had adopted him as her successor. but since, in the fear of having no heir, the queen on her deathbed had named two instead of one, alfonso had to sustain his rights against rene. the two aspirants for some time disputed the crown. at last the house of aragon carried the day over the house of anjou, and in the course of the year 1442, alfonso definitely secured his seat on the throne. of this sort were the claims of the defeated rival which we shall see charles viii maintaining later on. ferdinand had neither the courage nor the genius of his father, and yet he triumphed over his enemies, one after another he had two rivals, both far superior in merit to him self. the one was his nephew, the count of viana, who, basing his claim on his uncle's shameful birth, commanded the whole aragonese party; the other was duke john of calabria, who commanded the whole angevin party. still he managed to hold the two apart, and to keep himself on the throne by dint of his prudence, which often verged upon duplicity. he had a cultivated mind, and had studied the sciences—above all, law. he was of middle height, with a large handsome head, his brow open and admirably framed in beautiful white hair, which fell nearly down to his shoulders. moreover, though he had rarely exercised his physical strength in arms, this strength was so great that one day, when he happened to be on the square of the mercato nuovo at naples, he seized by the horns a bull that had escaped and stopped him short, in spite of all the efforts the animal made to escape from his hands. now the election of alexander had caused him great uneasiness, and in spite of his usual prudence he had not been able to restrain himself from saying before the bearer of the news that not only did he fail to rejoice in this election, but also that he did not think that any christian could rejoice in it, seeing that borgia, having always been a bad man, would certainly make a bad pope. to this he added that, even were the choice an excellent one and such as would please everybody else, it would be none the less fatal to the house of aragon, although roderigo was born her subject and owed to her the origin and progress of his fortunes; for wherever reasons of state come in, the ties of blood and parentage are soon forgotten, and, 'a fortiori', relations arising from the obligations of nationality.
thus, one may see that ferdinand judged alexander vi with his usual perspicacity; this, however, did not hinder him, as we shall soon perceive, from being the first to contract an alliance with him.
the duchy of milan belonged nominally to john galeazzo, grandson of francesco sforza, who had seized it by violence on the 26th of february, 1450, and bequeathed it to his son, galeazzo maria, father of the young prince now reigning; we say nominally, because the real master of the milanese was at this period not the legitimate heir who was supposed to possess it, but his uncle ludovico, surnamed 'il moro', because of the mulberry tree which he bore in his arms. after being exiled with his two brothers, philip who died of poison in 1479, and ascanio who became the cardinal, he returned to milan some days after the assassination of galeazzo maria, which took place on the 26th of december 1476, in st. stephen's church, and assumed the regency for the young duke, who at that time was only eight years old. from now onward, even after his nephew had reached the age of two-and-twenty, ludovico continued to rule, and according to all probabilities was destined to rule a long time yet; for, some days after the poor young man had shown a desire to take the reins himself, he had fallen sick, and it was said, and not in a whisper, that he had taken one of those slow but mortal poisons of which princes made so frequent a use at this period, that, even when a malady was natural, a cause was always sought connected with some great man's interests. however it may have been, ludovico had relegated his nephew, now too weak to busy himself henceforward with the affairs of his duchy, to the castle of pavia, where he lay and languished under the eyes of his wife isabella, daughter of king ferdinand of naples.
as to ludovico, he was an ambitious man, full of courage and astuteness, familiar with the sword and with poison, which he used alternately, according to the occasion, without feeling any repugnance or any predilection for either of them; but quite decided to be his nephew's heir whether he died or lived.
florence, although she had preserved the name of a republic, had little by little lost all her liberties, and belonged in fact, if not by right, to piero dei medici, to whom she had been bequeathed as a paternal legacy by lorenzo, as we have seen, at the risk of his soul's salvation.
the son, unfortunately, was far from having the genius of his father: he was handsome, it is true, whereas lorenzo, on the contrary, was remarkably ugly; he had an agreeable, musical voice, whereas lorenzo had always spoken through his nose; he was instructed in latin and greek, his conversation was pleasant and easy, and he improvised verses almost as well as the so-called magnificent; but he was both ignorant of political affairs and haughtily insolent in his behaviour to those who had made them their study. added to this, he was an ardent lover of pleasure, passionately addicted to women, incessantly occupied with bodily exercises that should make him shine in their eyes, above all with tennis, a game at which he very highly excelled: he promised himself that, when the period of mourning was fast, he would occupy the attention not only of florence but of the whole of italy, by the splendour of his courts and the renown of his fetes. piero dei medici had at any rate formed this plan; but heaven decreed otherwise.
as to the most serene republic of venice, whose doge was agostino barbarigo, she had attained, at the time we have reached, to her highest degree of power and splendour. from cadiz to the palus maeotis, there was no port that was not open to her thousand ships; she possessed in italy, beyond the coastline of the canals and the ancient duchy of venice, the provinces of bergamo, brescia, crema, verona, vicenza, and padua; she owned the marches of treviso, which comprehend the districts of feltre, belluno, cadore, polesella of rovigo, and the principality of ravenna; she also owned the friuli, except aquileia; istria, except trieste; she owned, on the east side of the gulf, zara, spalatra, and the shore of albania; in the ionian sea, the islands of zante and corfu; in greece, lepanto and patras; in the morea, morone, corone, neapolis, and argos; lastly, in the archipelago, besides several little towns and stations on the coast, she owned candia and the kingdom of cyprus.
thus from the mouth of the po to the eastern extremity of the mediterranean, the most serene republic was mistress of the whole coastline, and italy and greece seemed to be mere suburbs of venice.
in the intervals of space left free between naples, milan, florence, and venice, petty tyrants had arisen who exercised an absolute sovereignty over their territories: thus the colonnas were at ostia and at nettuna, the montefeltri at urbino, the manfredi at faenza, the bentivogli at bologna, the malatesta family at rimini, the vitelli at citta di castello, the baglioni at perugia, the orsini at vicovaro, and the princes of este at ferrara.
finally, in the centre of this immense circle, composed of great powers, of secondary states, and of little tyrannies, rome was set on high, the most exalted, yet the weakest of all, without influence, without lands, without an army, without gold. it was the concern of the new pope to secure all this: let us see, therefore, what manner of man was this alexander vi, for undertaking and accomplishing such a project.
