only last year the arabic paper, es-zahir, published in egypt, said: “has the time not come yet when uniting the suppressed wailings of india with our own groans and sighs in egypt, we should say to each other, come, let us be one, following the divine words, ‘victory belongs to the united forces’? certainly the time has come when we, india and egypt, should cut and tear asunder the ties of the yoke imposed on us by the english.” on the other hand, mohammed husain, the editor of a paper at lahore, wrote a treatise on jihad (1893), stating: “the present treatise on the question of jihad has been compiled for two reasons. my first object is that the mohammedans, ignorant of the texts bearing on jihad and the conditions of islam, may become acquainted with them, and that they may not labor under the misapprehension that it is their religious duty to wage war against another people solely because that people is opposed to islam. thus they, by ascertaining the fixed conditions and texts, may be saved forever from rebellion, and may not sacrifice their lives and property fruitlessly nor unjustly shed the blood of others. my second object is that non-mohammedans and the government under whose protection the mohammedans live, may not suspect mohammedans of thinking that it is lawful for us to fight against non-mohammedans, or that it is our duty to interfere with the life and property of others, or that we are bound to convert others forcibly to mohammedanism, or to spread islam by means of the sword.”
so the question of “religion and the sword” is still an open one among moslems. it must needs be so long as they obey the koran and tradition, for mohammed said, “he who dies and has not fought for the religion of islam, nor has even said in his heart, ‘would to god i were a champion that could die in the road of god,’ is even as a hypocrite.” and again, still more forcibly, “the fire of hell shall not touch the legs of him who is covered with the dust of battle in the road of god.” in spite of cruelty, bloodshed, dissension and deceit, the story of the moslem conquest with the sword of jihad is full of heroism and inspiration.
—s. m. zwemer, f. r. g. s. in “islam.”
[pg 85]
selim iii, sultan of turkey from 1789-1807, more formally and openly displayed the spirit and purpose of reform than had any of his predecessors. he had been carefully educated, and conceived the bold design of becoming the regenerator of the empire. he erected a printing-press at scutari, welcomed intelligent foreigners, employed christian workmen, and, among many other things, changed the system of taxation. he also called in european generals to train his army, and sought advice from the european residents of his capital. in the meantime, the invasion of egypt by napoleon had stirred up the passions of the populace of constantinople, and the sultan with his unpopular reform measures tottered upon his throne. russians marched into the danubian provinces, while a british fleet passed the dardanelles and anchored at the mouth of the bosporus. the janissaries mutinied in 1807 and selim’s rule ceased. these internal imbroglios had attracted the attention of the world to constantinople and egypt, if not to all turkey.
after the brief reign of mustipha iv, mahmud ii ascended the throne in 1808. he possessed extraordinary energy and force, and warmly espoused the reform measures of selim. resisting russia’s demand that all greeks in turkey should be placed under the immediate protection of russia, he was soon at war with that country. napoleon prevented the occupancy of constantinople by the russians, but most of the danube province was lost. a hellenic revolution was later fermented which broke into open [pg 86] conflict early in the beginning of mission work in turkey.
turkey as a government and as a factor in the relations of russia to europe was thus brought to the attention of the west. at the same time there was a revival of interest in the jews, both in europe and in the united states. there was a restudying of history and prophecy with new interpretations, which led to the formation of societies to circulate among them the new testament and to preach to them the gospel of christ. naturally, palestine and syria came first of all to be recognized as a land that had peculiar claims upon christians. there was a wide-spread belief that the jews were about to return to their ancestral home, and that such return would be limited only by the obstructions put in their way by the ottoman government. levi parsons, the first american missionary to palestine, said, in 1819, just before sailing, “destroy the ottoman empire and nothing but a miracle will prevent the jews’ immediate return from the four winds of heaven.” it was natural that, in their judgment, missionaries ought to be there to receive them when the ottoman empire, then apparently in its death struggle, tottered to its fall.
moreover, the turkish empire embraced the lands of the bible. there was in the minds and hearts of american christians not a little of the spirit of the crusaders of the middle ages. why should the soil trodden by the feet of the prophets and apostles, yes, even by the lord himself, remain a stranger to the voice of the preacher of righteousness and untouched by the feet of the modern apostle? the instructions given to the first missionaries to turkey dwelt upon this impressive and moving fact, as did the early letters of the [pg 87] missionaries. unlike the crusaders, these aimed at a purely spiritual conquest, but it included the christian subjection of all races and peoples.
as a part of this same impulse may be placed the interest in the historic greek and syrian churches. students of church history were profoundly moved as they learned of the decadence of vital christianity in these churches, and they were thrilled with the desire to inaugurate among them a revival that should restore them to their former prominence and power. the purpose to reach mohammedans does not appear prominent in the earlier documents of this period, although it is not by any means entirely wanting.
in view of these facts and also since turkey was the most accessible to america of any asiatic country, it is not strange that in 1819, with unusual enthusiasm, two missionaries, levi parsons and pliny fisk, were set apart for work in turkey by the american board of commissioners, with special reference to the jews in palestine.
as a strategic center in which to begin to prosecute missionary work, few countries are more attractive than turkey. it lies along the southern border of russia throughout its entire length, except as separated by the black sea. upon the east it borders upon persia, and constitutes almost the only approach to this country of the shah, as well as to the caucasus possessions of the czar. arabia, egypt, and north africa all border upon the same mediterranean sea, and many important islands like cyprus and crete lie but little off its coast.
constantinople, the capital of the ottoman empire, occupies the most strategic position of any city in europe and dominates both the european and asiatic sides of the bosporus. to this center all the [pg 88] great and historic cities of turkey look for political direction, and to it come sooner or later representatives of every tribe and race in the empire. all traffic from the black sea to the outer world and even from persia and southern and eastern russia must perforce pass through constantinople and the dardanelles. it stands upon the highway and at the crossroads of commerce and travel. as a base for missionary operations, not only upon turkey but upon adjacent countries as well, it is unexcelled. smyrna upon the grecian sea, with immense populations behind it, by the strategic force of its location, commanded the early attention of those sent out to explore for location. beirut in syria attracted for the same reason the attention of the missionaries to palestine.
there is an advantage in carrying on missionary work among sturdy races. when such are converted, they become a force in the work of the church, the conduct of christian institutions, and the propagation of the gospel. no country in the world could present such an array of ancient, historic, and hardy races as turkey. race survival there was under the law of the survival of the fittest. none but the invincible remained. some had proven themselves invincible by arms, others had conquered by superior intelligence, strategy, and cunning. each race remained because, in some particular, it had an advantage over its natural and persistent antagonists. the very fact that these races had kept themselves apart, resisting gradual absorption while repelling open attempts at conquest, and all for twenty centuries or more, testifies to their sturdy worth.
some of these, like the greeks, armenians, jews, and arabs, had been masters of an ancient and proud civilization, in which learning had [pg 89] high place and religion was supreme. there was no ground for questioning native ability to grasp the principles of christianity when once these peoples were enlisted. a modern church and a modern civilization built upon such historic races, and propagated by such men, could not fail to become an irresistible force in that needy land. it is no wonder that the officers of the american board of missions early concluded that the ottoman empire was a strategic point in which to plant modern christianity and the institutions which it fosters and propagates.
while the sultan represents one sect of mohammedanism, namely, the sunni, and the persians another, the shiah, between whom there has existed great and often bloody hostility, yet the persian mohammedans make their pilgrimages to mecca, pray towards that holy of holies, and reverence the sacred relics in the keeping of the sultan. however much the shah may bluster, he listens when the sultan speaks. his country can find outlet in the west only across turkey, and much that comes from the outside world comes through some part of the turkish empire. as the nestorians and armenians are found upon both sides of the line, and constitute the chief non-moslem populations of persia, it was most natural to connect the mission work of persia directly with that in turkey. such a connection holds to the present time. in many respects turkey was the key to persia and is to-day.
at the beginning of mission operations, russia was especially open to the circulation of the scriptures in the vernacular. it was hoped and expected that soon the entire country would be accessible for direct christian and educational operations among the millions of that empire. the whole caucasus region can be easily approached by no other route [pg 90] than the black sea. the armenians dwell in large numbers in that section of the country and are constantly passing back and forth in trade and commerce. constantinople lies at the crossing of all roads from the black sea regions and beyond to the outer world and the west.
the balkan peninsula and macedonia, lying to the north and west, also center in the capital of the ottoman empire. as the seat of government for macedonia and the province of adrianople, all political influence and movement are that way. for generations it was the capital of the balkan provinces and even yet it is the great metropolis to which merchants, students, and workmen go for a longer or a shorter period of residence abroad. there is no other center so well calculated to be the base of operations upon all that region.
the american board was organized in 1810 and its first missionaries were sent out in 1812. these went to the farther east, to india and ceylon. it was not the intention of the board to confine its foreign operations to these two countries. christian leaders in america were surveying the world for the purpose of finding other countries in which to establish christian missions. explorations into the western parts of our own country resulted in beginning work among the indians as early as 1816. it is not surprising that in their survey of the wide world, its special needs and promising openings, attention should have been early called to turkey.
