the fall of c?sonia was hardly less romantic than the succession to her position of the woman who is known to every reader of roman history, and to many others, as messalina. when caligula entered the narrow passage leading to the palatine, after the performance in the theatre, a few members of his suite walked before him. one of these was his uncle claudius, a slow-witted and despised man, in his fiftieth year, whom caligula had rescued from humiliation and put in office. he had already entered the palace when the raucous cries of the german guard and the flash of weapons informed him of the assassination of the emperor. the guards were cutting down such of the conspirators as they could reach. in instinctive terror claudius hid behind a curtain, nor was he reassured when he saw the soldiers pass with the heads of the nobles they had slain. presently a soldier of the pr?torian guard noticed his feet below the curtain, and drew him out. claudius fell to the ground in terror, and implored them to spare his life. the soldiers had recognized him, however. they put him in a litter, and carried him on their shoulders to the camp. citizens whom they passed in the street pitied the harmless and, as was generally believed, half-witted prince. at last some one learned, or divined, the purpose of the guards, and claudius awoke from his terror to hear the strange cry of “salve, imperator,” and realized that he was to be made emperor of rome.

61 he had been married three years before to valeria messalina, who thus became the fifth empress. as the youngest son of drusus, brother of tiberius, and antonia, daughter of mark antony and octavia, he was the natural heir to caligula. the imperial power was in no sense hereditary, but the attachment of the pr?torian guards to the ruling family, and their irresistible domination over rome, for some time ensured a kind of hereditary succession. there had, however, been no deliberate proposal to put claudius on the throne. while the future of the empire was being determined by the rough mercenaries in the pr?torian camp, where claudius promised a substantial largess for his elevation, the senate was actually discussing the question of restoring the republic. somewhat deformed in person, clumsy in gait and corpulent, stuttering in speech, deficient at least in the power of expression, claudius had always been regarded as a negligible offshoot of the julian stock. his mother had spoken of him as “a little monster,” octavian had genially treated him as half-witted, and, when he arrived at early manhood, tiberius had refused to give him any rank or office. caligula, however, had given him consular rank, and promoted him in the palace, though he treated his uncle with the brutal jocularity which his mental infirmity was held to justify.

we shall see that this treatment was far from just, for claudius had some excellent qualities; but the disdain of his family threw him upon the society of his servants, and led him to seek consolation in the pleasures of the table and the dice-board. he had in early youth been betrothed to a daughter of julia. this contract was dissolved when julia’s vices were discovered, and he was married to a young lady of distinguished and wealthy family, livia medullina camilla. she died on the wedding-day, and he married plautia urgulanilla, a daughter of the empress livia’s intimate friend, urgulania. suspecting, after a few years, that her friendship with his emancipated-slave friends was warmer than he intended, he divorced her,62 and married ?lia p?tina, who in turn was shortly divorced.

in the year 38 he married the notorious valeria messalina, whose name conveys to every student of history or morals a summary impression of the worst features of the early empire. the spirit of our time is so resolutely bent on visiting the sins of the children on their fathers—so determined to seek the secret of character in heredity—that the older biographical practice of drawing out genealogies cannot be entirely abandoned; though one may wonder whether the tainted atmosphere of rome may not have been more deadly than a tainted stock. it is enough to say that both her parents were of the julian family, and were first cousins of claudius. her father, valerius messala barbatus, was a senator of distinction. he is known to us as the senator who, in the old roman spirit, made a futile effort to restrain women from invading public life and the camp. her mother has a less reputable record. we shall see that she eventually falls under a charge of conspiracy and magic; but we may find that her more serious offence was an intense hatred of the empress agrippina, who brought the charge against her.

messalina, as we may now briefly call her—with a passing protest against that uncouth expression, “the messaline”—was in her sixteenth year at the time of her marriage. an indulgent imagination will be able to appreciate the dangerous situation of the young girl. entering, in her teens, a world of the most seductive pleasure and the utmost license, with so responsive and impulsive a nature as she had, she needed the guidance of a man whom she could at least respect. instead of this, she found herself mated to a man of forty-eight years, whose full paunch and long thin legs and tremulous head were the jest of the palatine, and who spent his hours in the company of greek freedmen, or in too prolonged an enjoyment of rich dishes and costly wines. claudius, it is true, adored her, but his adoration only made him the surer dupe of her craving for indulgence. her misconduct63 probably began early. when, after the evening meal, she left her spouse intoxicated and snoring over the emptied dishes, when his throat had been tickled with a feather, so that he might disgorge and return to the imperial dainties, the young girl would naturally yield to the counsels of the unscrupulous courtiers who abounded in such a palace.

the path to the abyss was made smoother for her by her husband’s reliance on his freedmen. in the later years of the republic, when the dominion of rome was extended over the east, the practice had grown of employing the more accomplished slaves of greece and syria in the patrician palaces. equally expert at keeping accounts or pandering to vice, they won their emancipation and acquired large fortunes in the service of their new masters. they were usually regarded with disdain, but, as we saw, claudius had been driven to associate familiarly with them, and they attained great power when he ascended the throne. rome now discovered a new evil in the imperial rule it had adopted. all who wished to approach the emperor with a petition had to flatter or bribe the freedman callistus, to whom this part of claudius’s duties was entrusted. his steward of finances, pallas, his secretary, narcissus, and his adviser in letters, polybius, stood at one or other avenue of the palace, and exacted toll of all who approached. offices were distributed through their avaricious hands, and it was soon noticed that they built magnificent villas in the neighbourhood of rome. whether the rumour was true or not, it was believed in rome that some of the noblest ladies paid an ignominious price to these men for the favours they sought, or were surrendered to them by the empress. it is at all events clear that messalina soon came to an understanding with them. both they and she needed to dupe the purblind emperor, and it was felt that a friendly co-operation would be better than a precarious contest for supremacy.

before the end of the first year of claudius’s reign this64 corrupt collusion began to show its influence. claudius had begun well. he set to work at once to redress the injustice and follies of caligula. a general amnesty was granted, the courts of justice were purified, the administration was opened to the abler provincials, and the public funds were expended on public works of solid usefulness. how far the freedmen were responsible for these measures it is difficult to say, but it seems that we must grant claudius, not only good will, but some quality of judgment. at the same time, there is evidence from the first of some infirmity of mind. his work as a judge seems to have been more remarkable for industry than enlightenment. on one occasion an angry knight (eques) threw books at him in the court-house; on another, during a shortage of corn, the people pelted him with mouldy crusts in the forum. humane he was, apparently, in those early months, but he does not seem to have shaken off his earlier repute and exhibited any personal dignity.

it was not long before even his humanity was warped by the malignant persuasions of his wife and the corrupt connivance of his freedmen. in our age of apologists there has been some effort to relieve the character of messalina from its heavy burden of infamy, or at least to discredit the evidence adduced for it. i have already said enough about the roman authorities to justify one in making some reserve in regard to the details transmitted to us about messalina. when we read tacitus we have to remember that he had before him the memoirs of her bitter enemy and successor, agrippina. when we read suetonius and dio and later writers we must not forget their love of vivid colours and romantic details. yet these writers had in their time official records, and something like public journals, belonging to the earlier period, which put the malignant and unscrupulous action of messalina beyond question; of the less startling stories of her infidelities we have proof enough in the remarkable and authentic episode which will close her career. it cannot reasonably be doubted that the traditional estimate of the character of65 messalina is substantially just, though we must use some discretion in admitting particular statements about her.

with this reserve we may follow, in fair chronological order, the career of this young girl of nineteen, who is dazed by the sudden attainment of imperial wealth and power, until, in her twenty-fifth year, her childish efforts to pierce her bosom with a dagger are ended by the manly thrust of a soldier’s sword. she had borne a daughter, octavia, before the accession of her husband, and she was far advanced in child-bearing when caligula was assassinated. claudius, unable to believe his good fortune, expecting daily that some fresh movement would dislodge him from the throne, kept in the palace with her. a month after his accession she bore a son, tiberius claudius germanicus (later known as britannicus), and claudius ventured out, to exhibit his heir to the people and express his joy. he never entirely lost his fear. soldiers served him at table, and all who approached him were searched. but his clement and comparatively enlightened rule won him some popularity, his gluttony and weak wit were genially overlooked, and he gave promise of a prosperous reign.

the first indication of the evil of his feeble dependence on messalina and the freedmen occurred before the end of the year 41. claudius had recalled from exile caligula’s sisters, julia livilla and agrippina, and restored their property. agrippina, whose character and career will occupy the next chapter, was in her twenty-fifth year, livilla in her twenty-third. both had the beauty of the julian women in its ripest development. agrippina quickly realized her situation and discreetly concealed her ambition, but the younger woman was too proud to be diplomatic, and she was suspected of an ambition which she possibly did not entertain. messalina became jealous, and denounced her to claudius for adultery. claudius was persuaded that an open trial would entail scandal on the imperial family, and the unfortunate woman was exiled without the chance of defence. she was starved to death66 in her prison shortly afterwards, and, when the further course of this story has been read, one will hardly hesitate to accept the assurance of the chroniclers that this grave crime was committed by the orders of messalina.

that the charge against livilla was malignant cannot be doubted when we learn that her lover was said to be the famous stoic moralist, seneca. the disease of rome had already evoked a natural remedy. the austere code of morals which zeno had formulated some centuries earlier in the marble colonnade at athens was now adopted by the best of the romans. pointing to the enfeeblement and degradation which this epidemic of eastern vice and luxury had brought on their city, the philosophers argued that the curb must be placed once more on sensual impulse, and the old virility of rome restored. seneca was the most distinguished representative of this growing school at rome, and, ambiguous or even reprehensible as his conduct may seem to us at a later stage, we should in this case prefer to attribute his punishment to the known vice of messalina rather than to a frailty on his part of which we have no indication. the wise and just counsel that he gave to claudius was probably distasteful to messalina and the freedmen. without trial or defence he was banished to corsica. it is sometimes said that, as seneca nowhere impeaches the virtue of messalina, we may distrust the charge of vice against her which we find in all the later chroniclers; but seneca also fails to refer to her greater and quite indisputable misdeeds, so that the omission has no significance. seneca remained in exile six years, and had no more personal knowledge than suetonius of the debauches of messalina.

her first success emboldened the empress. within a few months she selected another lady, julia, the daughter of drusus, and denounced her to claudius. such virtue or discernment as claudius may have possessed was now attenuated by the sensual excesses in which his wife and his ministers encouraged him to indulge, and his humanity67 was contaminated by the passion for gladiatorial displays which he gradually contracted. we must not too hastily admit the lowest estimate of his powers. if octavian could be so long and so easily duped by julia, we may admit that claudius’s ignorance was consistent with some measure of good sense, which he still displayed in provincial administration and the accomplishment of public works. but from the end of the first year of his reign he lends himself so basely and ignobly to the schemes of messalina that it is impossible to defend him. no sooner did his wife accuse julia than she was banished, without trial, and it is easy to believe that her speedy death at the hands of the centurion in charge of her was due to the orders of messalina. it was said that julia had excited the empress’s suspicions by too tender a regard for claudius.

the more prudent agrippina now sought the protection of a husband. she is said to have chosen the future emperor, sulpicius galba, and urged him to divorce his ailing wife; but the wife’s mother took her part, and ended the intrigue by boxing agrippina’s ears in public. the wife died soon afterwards, but galba feared the resentment of messalina too much to wed agrippina. she then induced crispus passienus, a wealthy and distinguished noble and a famous orator, to divorce his wife and marry her. she had inherited a moderate fortune from an earlier husband—the father of her son, the future emperor nero—and the great wealth and distinction of passienus put her in a much stronger position. passienus died soon afterwards, leaving his fortune to agrippina and nero. how the fortune was used for the advancement of mother and son, and how agrippina was eventually murdered by her son, will be told in the next chapter. serviez repeats without hesitation a rumour, lightly reproduced in one of the chronicles, that she murdered passienus to secure the wealth. the charge is of the most frivolous character. her husband had afforded her some protection: a fortune without a68 husband would rather attract than divert the passion of messalina.

the year 42 was marked by a conspiracy that unhappily disposed claudius more than ever to confide in messalina and the freedmen. the troops in dalmatia were to be employed in the dethronement of claudius. at the last moment, however, the soldiers were startled by so many and such undeniable signs of the anger of the gods that they returned to their loyalty and slew their officers. the standards could not be dragged out of the ground—a not unnatural event, one would think, in a dalmatian winter—and the wreaths had fallen from the eagles.

the plot was reported to the palace, and messalina and the freedmen drew up long lists of men whom it was desirable to remove or despoil. wealthier men redeemed their lives by paying considerable sums; others were put to the torture, or were consigned to prison or the grave. a story is told in the record of this persecution which should guard us from admitting the common fallacy that the older spirit of rome was quite extinct. a distinguished patrician heard that his name was on the list of the condemned. his wife urged him to escape the ignominy of a public execution by ending his own life, and, when he hesitated, she buried the dagger in her own bosom, and then handed it to him with the words, worthy of a corneille: “it does not hurt.” another victim was appius silanus, who had married messalina’s mother, domitia lepida. the chroniclers say that his crime was to have rejected the advances which messalina made to him. whatever the motive was, she induced the freedman narcissus to tell claudius that he saw, in a dream, silanus thrusting a dagger into the emperor’s heart. claudius nervously consulted his wife, who confessed, with artistic horror, that the same dream had frequently tormented her. they had meantime summoned silanus to the palace, and, as he entered at that moment, the emperor ordered him to be executed at once.

69 such are a few of the dark crimes attributed to messalina that we cannot seriously question, and that fully prepare us to believe the less inhuman misdeeds which it might otherwise be possible to doubt. in the following year (a.d. 43) claudius went to britain, leaving his empress at rome. it seems to have been at this time that, unless we are arbitrarily to set aside one group of charges in the records and admit another, messalina indulged in the practices which have secured for her an unenviable immortality. the perfectly authentic sequel of the story will show that she had so extraordinary a disregard for even the pretence of moral feeling that the statements of the chroniclers cannot for a moment be set down as improbable. in a word, messalina surpassed caligula both in her own misconduct and in the propagation of vice. envying the trade of the lowest women of rome, she had one of the rooms at the palace equipped on the model of the chambers of the meretrices in the tenements of the subura, put over the door the name of one of the most notorious women of that caste, lycisca, and offered the lascivious embrace of an empress to any who cared to pay the price for which she stipulated. others place the scene in an actual brothel. not content with her own abasement, she compelled the most distinguished ladies of rome to follow her example. she bestowed the honours and offices, which claudius left at her disposal, on the husbands who would complacently witness the defilement of their wives, and offered the alternative of her deadly lists to those who refused. uncertain as we must always be whether these statements are not mere exaggerations of her conduct in the popular mind of the time, they are consistent enough with the accredited facts of her career.

in the year 44 claudius returned with joy to what he still regarded as the chaste and tender arms of his young empress. so lively was his esteem of her virtue that he obtained from the senate permission for her to ride in the ceremonious car (carpentum), an honour which was restricted to the priestly rank and rigorously forbidden to70 women. he granted her, also, the signal distinction of riding in his chariot on the day of his triumphal procession. the ease with which she duped him led her to fresh excesses. it is said that when she saw his wine-soaked body laid to bed at night, she placed one of her maids with him, and went with the companions of her debauches. if we may believe a story which has no inherent improbability, and has some confirmation later, she made the blind emperor himself purvey to her vices. she one day complained to claudius that the popular actor, mnester, would not obey her when she commanded him to leave the stage and enter her private service. claudius forced him to do so; and three years later, when messalina’s conduct was exposed, mnester exhibited to the emperor the scars on his body which gave proof of messalina’s brutal familiarity. even when she used the bronze coinage of caligula, which had been withdrawn from circulation, to make a statue to mnester, claudius suspected nothing.

this licentious conduct continued until the year 47. messalina was only in her twenty-fifth year when her long impunity led her to take the step which ruined her. a bust of her that is preserved at florence, and a cameo at vienna, give a representation of her that we have no inclination to distrust. the curly golden-yellow hair—juvenal tells us its colour—is elaborately dressed over the low forehead, and the large deep-set eyes are abnormally close. there is some irregularity in the undeniable beauty of the face; and the thin lips and small mouth, drooping weakly at the corners, would irresistibly suggest a record of adventure, if such a story were not assigned to her in the chronicles of the time. with that record before us it is, no doubt, easy for physiognomists to detect a moral distortion in the features, and to discover unknown, as well as verify the known, vices of the empress in the truthful marble. yet any thoughtful observer will be disposed to see in those pitiless lineaments a revelation of the truth about messalina and her race. it is a picture of strength worn to decay by reiterated storms of71 passion, of beauty fading with the disease which foreruns death.

messalina

bust in the uffizi palace, florence

one last crime must be added to the record of messalina before we come to the crowning folly of her career. there remained one woman in rome more beautiful than she; and one distinguished patrician whose virtue rebuked her, and whose wealth allured her. she resolved to bury the two under a common ruin.

valerius asiaticus, a patrician of consular rank and great merit, had withdrawn from rome to crete as the madness of messalina and the blindness of claudius increased. unhappily for him, he owned the beautiful and famous garden which lucullus had laid out on the summit of the pincian hill, and messalina was now eager for it. she employed the tutors of her children to declare to the emperor that asiaticus was at the head of an important faction at rome, and had gone to fire the eastern provinces with his rebellious spirit. the omens which were reported from the east seemed to claudius to make mere human testimony superfluous. the moon had been darkened by an eclipse, and a new island had risen from the ?g?an sea. the chald?an sages interpreted these signs with their customary art, and asiaticus was brought to rome.

he listened in disdain to the charge of conspiracy and adultery which the tutors, sosibius and suillius, brought against him, but, when they proceeded to accuse him of unnatural vice, he broke into an angry denial of the whole accusation. messalina was present at the trial—a wholly irregular proceeding, in claudius’s chamber—and saw that the emperor was moved. she whispered to vitellius, the sycophant who had first discovered caligula’s divinity and shaded his eyes from the blaze, that asiaticus must on no account escape, and left the room. vitellius, with ready wit, fell at the feet of the emperor. he enlarged at length on the great merits of the accused, and concluded with an artful plea that claudius would grant asiaticus the favour of being allowed to take his own life, instead72 of handing him over to the public executioner. easily confused by this stratagem, and fancying that he was showing some clemency, claudius assented. asiaticus, true to the finest traditions of his fathers, returned to his palace, bathed and supped in perfect tranquillity, and then opened his veins. messalina secured the gardens of lucullus.

the lady with whom asiaticus is said to have offended was popp?a sabina, the only woman in rome who surpassed messalina in beauty. that would be quite enough to arouse the jealousy of messalina, but we are told that she had the still greater mortification of believing that popp?a was too intimate with the actor mnester, whom the empress had appropriated. the daughter of popp?a will presently come before our eyes in the gallery of roman empresses, and, if we may infer from her conduct the nature of her mother’s precepts and example, we cannot set aside the charge as improbable. there is, however, no need for us to discuss it. no sooner was asiaticus condemned than messalina sent the news to popp?a, and she put an end to her own life. sosibius received a million sesterces, in the form of a special reward for his service in instructing the young princes; and other ministers to the cruelty, avarice, and passion of the empress were richly endowed.

messalina now ventured upon so flagrant a violation, not merely of decency, but of the moderate discretion that had hitherto concealed her conduct from her husband, that her career of infamy was brought to a violent close. she had for some time entertained and indulged a passion for caius silius, one of the most handsome men among the roman nobility. tacitus assures us that there was no secrecy in the amour. she persuaded silius to divorce his wife, visited his house with a large retinue, and made him repeated gifts of slaves and other property belonging to the imperial house. an obscure passage in tacitus seems to imply that her impatience of all laws led her to form the design of marrying silius while married to claudius, and73 the details of what immediately followed have come down to us in contradictory versions. it is said by some that silius proposed to her to remove claudius and share the throne with him, and that she hesitated only from fear that silius might divorce her as soon as he had secured the purple. other writers say that the ph?nix appeared in egypt, as it had done before the death of tiberius, and that the nervous emperor was further told of a prediction that the husband of messalina would die before the end of the year. in order to cheat this decree of the fates, suetonius says, claudius signed the divorce of messalina, and went down to the coast, leaving her free to marry silius. he intended to return and recover her as soon as silius had fulfilled the prophecy by dying.

it is clear that a good deal of legend has mingled with the true account of the events which led to messalina’s downfall, and one can merely try to construct a plausible story out of the discordant versions. tacitus, the highest authority, knows nothing of the prophecy, or the divorce which it is said to have occasioned. his silence is not conclusive, and the course attributed to claudius, however extravagant it may seem, is not inconsistent with his abnormally timorous nature. on the whole, however, one is disposed to agree with merivale, that claudius heard of no prophecy, signed no divorce, and knew nothing of the liaison until a later stage, as dio implies. but merivale is plainly wrong in suggesting that the marriage of messalina and silius is a libellous legend borrowed from agrippina’s memoirs. when he submits that such a marriage could not have taken place without the emperor’s knowledge, he forgets that, as all the authorities state or imply, claudius had left rome and gone down to the coast. the emperor returned to the city as soon as he heard of the marriage.

the real course of events seems to be that claudius was vaguely informed of the existence of a conspiracy against him. he complained bitterly to the senate, confined himself for some time to the palace, and then, in74 october, went to ostia to inspect certain public works which were in progress there. delighted at his removal, messalina went through the form of marriage—the laxer, not the more solemn, form (confarreatio)—with silius, and cast aside the last shade of reserve. base as her nature was, she must have been weary of the nightly spectacle of the repulsive old man sinking back in satiety on his couch, while slaves tickled his throat with a feather to induce a vomit. silius was young, handsome, and not without wit. a better future seemed to open before her. perhaps the slow-witted emperor would make no struggle for his throne; perhaps the city and the guards would gladly sacrifice him for this handsome young imperial pair. there is calculation in the carven face of messalina. but the news was speeding to ostia, and the dreadful end was near.

shortly after the marriage came the festival of the vintage, the bacchanalia, which was celebrated by the bride and bridegroom and their friends with the wildest merriment. that last scene in the licentious career of messalina must have made a deep impression on the feeling of rome, and it is lit up for ever by one of tacitus’s most vivid flashes of description. messalina had bestowed on silius the imperial palace and its contents, and in the garden of the palace they paid full honour to the orgiastic cult of bacchus. wine-presses were set up, and the women of messalina’s company, their white limbs and bosoms scantily covered with strips of fawn skin, sang and danced the bacchic dance round the large vats of grape-juice. messalina, her golden hair flowing loose under her ivy wreath, shook her thyrsus and led the wild dance. silius lay at her feet, crowned with ivy, nodding his head to the air of the lascivious chorus. wine flowed freely on that autumn afternoon, and the gay world and distant ostia were forgotten; or so little heeded that when vettius valens, one of messalina’s discarded lovers, had, in boyish exuberance, climbed a high tree, and they crowded round and asked what he saw, he gaily cried: “a hurricane from ostia.”75 but before the evening was out the hurricane came from ostia and scattered the revellers in terror. news was brought to the garden that claudius was hurrying to rome to avenge his dishonour.

the freedman narcissus had disliked the idea of silius obtaining power, especially as messalina had recently taken the ominous step of securing the execution of his colleague polybius. in the suite of claudius at ostia were two female attendants, to describe them courteously, calpurnia and cleopatra, who were taken into counsel by narcissus, and learned their parts in his scheme. calpurnia flung herself at the feet of the emperor, crying, “messalina is married to silius.” cleopatra and narcissus were summoned by the emperor, and they assured him that his life was in danger, and he must hasten to rome. other advisers, who had been trained to their part by narcissus, were drawn into the group, and the dazed and vacillating claudius yielded to their guidance. he was at once placed in his chariot, and vitellius and narcissus rode with him. claudius feebly discussed the news as they travelled, and vitellius, not sure which party would triumph, remained silent; but the freedman assiduously fed the slow-kindling anger of the emperor.

silius had fled from the bacchanalian garden to the forum, and tried to conceal his part by a zealous absorption in business. messalina saw all the companions of her revels fly for safety, and leave her to face the storm alone in the palace-garden. from the disordered relics of the feast she hurried to her lucullan gardens on the pincian. there her courage seems to have revived, and she determined to make an effort to disarm her husband. directing the head of the vestal virgins to follow with her children, she went out upon the road which entered rome from ostia. the news had now spread over rome. with three companions only out of the gay throng of her followers, and vibidia, the vestal virgin, whose person was sacred, she braved the pitiless gaze of the citizens, who had so long seen her chariot flash by in triumph, and76 walked on foot to the gate of the city. there her strength failed, and she was forced to mount the common cart of a gardener. when they had covered a short distance from the gates, they saw the emperor’s chariot approaching, and she dismounted. whether from real affection for her, or from an indolent dislike of trouble, claudius hesitated once more when the piteous figure of his young wife appeared in his path; but narcissus reminded him of her marriage, and ordered the charioteer to drive on. her last despairing appeal was unheeded. the chariot galloped on, and left her standing on the road. a little further on the vestal virgin, relying on her high position, demanded that claudius should grant his wife an opportunity of defending herself, and thrust his children before him. the sight of his beloved octavia and britannicus again moved the wavering emperor. narcissus bade the charioteer drive onward, and messalina slowly turned to meet her fate in rome.

in order to dispel the last shade of tenderness from the emperor’s mind, narcissus conducted him first to the house of silius, and showed him the treasures of the imperial palace which messalina had showered on her lover. he then led him to the camp of the pr?torian guards, and induced him to make a speech to the soldiers. the feeble spirit of the emperor was cowed by the full revelation of messalina’s perfidy. now completely docile to the masterful freedman, he took his place at the tribunal, and passed sentence of death, which was at once carried out, on silius, mnester, vettius valens, and all messalina’s accomplices. mnester vainly stripped off his robe, to show that he had received from the empress rather the imprint of her anger than the embraces of which he was accused. the emperor signed the doom of all, and returned wearily to the palace. restored by food and wine, he began to resist the dictation of narcissus, and ordered him to inform messalina that he would hear her on the morrow. the freedman knew that a delay would ruin his design. he left the room, and told77 the guard that the emperor had commanded the immediate execution of his wife.

messalina had returned to her garden on the pincian, where she was joined by her mother. night had come on, and they sat in an arbour debating the mad brilliance of the past and the terrible gloom of the future. domitia lepida felt that there was no hope of recovering the favour of claudius, and urged her daughter to end her life as roman tradition prescribed. strong only in her clinging to life, like most of the other frail women of the julian house, messalina fell at her mother’s feet and sobbed. presently the stillness of the deserted garden was broken by the tramp of soldiers and a summons at the gate. still messalina shrank from the eternal darkness which she had so suddenly confronted. only when the officer of the guard told her the order that narcissus had given him, and the freedman who had come with the guard began insolently to revile her for her crimes, did she take the dagger from her mother’s hands. in the light of the single lamp of the arbour the little group looked on with pity and disdain, as the nerveless hands of messalina lacerated her white bosom with futile gashes. then the tribune mercifully drove his sword through her heart. her children came up, and found their mother’s lifeless body in a pool of blood.

this authentic closing of the career of messalina must dispose us to think that there may be little or no exaggeration in the stories that are told of her. stahr, in his brilliant apologetic study of the empresses, ventures to say that seneca did not reproduce these stories about messalina because he knew that they came from the pen of an embittered libeller; and it is safe to assume that tacitus did derive much of his material from the memoirs of the woman who had shrunk from the vindictive cruelty of messalina, and came in time to replace her. but so much crime is authoritatively laid to the account of the empress, and her last adventure reveals so shameless a disregard of either law or decency, that not a single detail is incredible78 or improbable. we shall find such excesses ascribed to later emperors, by writers who were not merely recording rumours that may have gathered volume during decades of passage from mouth to mouth, that nothing can be deemed impossible to a messalina. the humane biographer can but plead that she entered a world of the most dazzling allurement of vice and crime with a nature already tainted and distorted by the sins of her fathers, and that the horror of that last scene in the gardens of lucullus may be left as a merciful shroud over her unhappy memory.