early reflections on slavery—presentiment of one day being a

freeman—combat between an overseer and a slavewoman—the advantages

of resistance—allowance day on the home plantation—the singing

of slaves—an explanation—the slaves food and clothing—naked

children—life in the quarter—deprivation of sleep—nursing children

carried to the field—description of the cowskin—the ash-cake—manner

of making it—the dinner hour—the contrast.

the heart-rending incidents, related in the foregoing chapter, led me, thus early, to inquire into the nature and history of slavery. why am i a slave? why are some people slaves, and others masters? was there ever a time this was not so? how did the relation commence? these were the perplexing questions which began now to claim my thoughts, and to exercise the weak powers of my mind, for i was still but a child, and knew less than children of the same age in the free states. as my questions concerning these things were only put to children a little older, and little better informed than myself, i was not rapid in reaching a solid footing. by some means i learned from these inquiries that “god, up in the sky,” made every body; and that he made white people to be masters and mistresses, and black people to be slaves. this did not satisfy me, nor lessen my interest in the subject. i was told, too, that god was good, and that he knew what was best for me, and best for everybody. this was less satisfactory than the first statement; because it came, point blank, against all my[70] notions of goodness. it was not good to let old master cut the flesh off esther, and make her cry so. besides, how did people know that god made black people to be slaves? did they go up in the sky and learn it? or, did he come down and tell them so? all was dark here. it was some relief to my hard notions of the goodness of god, that, although he made white men to be slaveholders, he did not make them to be bad slaveholders, and that, in due time, he would punish the bad slaveholders; that he would, when they died, send them to the bad place, where they would be “burnt up.” nevertheless, i could not reconcile the relation of slavery with my crude notions of goodness.

then, too, i found that there were puzzling exceptions to this theory of slavery on both sides, and in the middle. i knew of blacks who were not slaves; i knew of whites who were not slaveholders; and i knew of persons who were nearly white, who were slaves. color, therefore, was a very unsatisfactory basis for slavery.

once, however, engaged in the inquiry, i was not very long in finding out the true solution of the matter. it was not color, but crime, not god, but man, that afforded the true explanation of the existence of slavery; nor was i long in finding out another important truth, viz: what man can make, man can unmake. the appalling darkness faded away, and i was master of the subject. there were slaves here, direct from guinea; and there were many who could say that their fathers and mothers were stolen from africa—forced from their homes, and compelled to serve as slaves. this, to me, was knowledge; but it was a kind of knowledge which filled me with a burning hatred of slavery, increased my suffering, and left me without the means of breaking away from my bondage. yet it was knowledge quite worth possessing. i could not have been more than seven or eight years old, when i began to make this subject my study. it was with me in the woods and fields; along the shore of the river, and wherever my boyish wanderings led me; and though i was, at that time,[71] quite ignorant of the existence of the free states, i distinctly remember being, even then, most strongly impressed with the idea of being a freeman some day. this cheering assurance was an inborn dream of my human nature a constant menace to slavery—and one which all the powers of slavery were unable to silence or extinguish.

up to the time of the brutal flogging of my aunt esther—for she was my own aunt—and the horrid plight in which i had seen my cousin from tuckahoe, who had been so badly beaten by the cruel mr. plummer, my attention had not been called, especially, to the gross features of slavery. i had, of course, heard of whippings and of savage rencontres between overseers and slaves, but i had always been out of the way at the times and places of their occurrence. my plays and sports, most of the time, took me from the corn and tobacco fields, where the great body of the hands were at work, and where scenes of cruelty were enacted and witnessed. but, after the whipping of aunt esther, i saw many cases of the same shocking nature, not only in my master’s house, but on col. lloyd’s plantation. one of the first which i saw, and which greatly agitated me, was the whipping of a woman belonging to col. lloyd, named nelly. the offense alleged against nelly, was one of the commonest and most indefinite in the whole catalogue of offenses usually laid to the charge of slaves, viz: “impudence.” this may mean almost anything, or nothing at all, just according to the caprice of the master or overseer, at the moment. but, whatever it is, or is not, if it gets the name of “impudence,” the party charged with it is sure of a flogging. this offense may be committed in various ways; in the tone of an answer; in answering at all; in not answering; in the expression of countenance; in the motion of the head; in the gait, manner and bearing of the slave. in the case under consideration, i can easily believe that, according to all slaveholding standards, here was a genuine instance of impudence. in nelly there were all the necessary conditions for committing the offense. she was[72] a bright mulatto, the recognized wife of a favorite “hand” on board col. lloyd’s sloop, and the mother of five sprightly children. she was a vigorous and spirited woman, and one of the most likely, on the plantation, to be guilty of impudence. my attention was called to the scene, by the noise, curses and screams that proceeded from it; and, on going a little in that direction, i came upon the parties engaged in the skirmish. mr. siever, the overseer, had hold of nelly, when i caught sight of them; he was endeavoring to drag her toward a tree, which endeavor nelly was sternly resisting; but to no purpose, except to retard the progress of the overseer’s plans. nelly—as i have said—was the mother of five children; three of them were present, and though quite small (from seven to ten years old, i should think) they gallantly came to their mother’s defense, and gave the overseer an excellent pelting with stones. one of the little fellows ran up, seized the overseer by the leg and bit him; but the monster was too busily engaged with nelly, to pay any attention to the assaults of the children. there were numerous bloody marks on mr. sevier’s face, when i first saw him, and they increased as the struggle went on. the imprints of nelly’s fingers were visible, and i was glad to see them. amidst the wild screams of the children—“let my mammy go”—“let my mammy go”—there escaped, from between the teeth of the bullet-headed overseer, a few bitter curses, mingled with threats, that “he would teach the d—d b—h how to give a white man impudence.” there is no doubt that nelly felt herself superior, in some respects, to the slaves around her. she was a wife and a mother; her husband was a valued and favorite slave. besides, he was one of the first hands on board of the sloop, and the sloop hands—since they had to represent the plantation abroad—were generally treated tenderly. the overseer never was allowed to whip harry; why then should he be allowed to whip harry’s wife? thoughts of this kind, no doubt, influenced her; but, for whatever reason, she nobly resisted, and, unlike most of the slaves,[73] seemed determined to make her whipping cost mr. sevier as much as possible. the blood on his (and her) face, attested her skill, as well as her courage and dexterity in using her nails. maddened by her resistance, i expected to see mr. sevier level her to the ground by a stunning blow; but no; like a savage bull-dog—which he resembled both in temper and appearance—he maintained his grip, and steadily dragged his victim toward the tree, disregarding alike her blows, and the cries of the children for their mother’s release. he would, doubtless, have knocked her down with his hickory stick, but that such act might have cost him his place. it is often deemed advisable to knock a man slave down, in order to tie him, but it is considered cowardly and inexcusable, in an overseer, thus to deal with a woman. he is expected to tie her up, and to give her what is called, in southern parlance, a “genteel flogging,” without any very great outlay of strength or skill. i watched, with palpitating interest, the course of the preliminary struggle, and was saddened by every new advantage gained over her by the ruffian. there were times when she seemed likely to get the better of the brute, but he finally overpowered her, and succeeded in getting his rope around her arms, and in firmly tying her to the tree, at which he had been aiming. this done, and nelly was at the mercy of his merciless lash; and now, what followed, i have no heart to describe. the cowardly creature made good his every threat; and wielded the lash with all the hot zest of furious revenge. the cries of the woman, while undergoing the terrible infliction, were mingled with those of the children, sounds which i hope the reader may never be called upon to hear. when nelly was untied, her back was covered with blood. the red stripes were all over her shoulders. she was whipped—severely whipped; but she was not subdued, for she continued to denounce the overseer, and to call him every vile name. he had bruised her flesh, but had left her invincible spirit undaunted. such floggings are seldom repeated by the same overseer. they prefer to whip those[74] who are most easily whipped. the old doctrine that submission is the very best cure for outrage and wrong, does not hold good on the slave plantation. he is whipped oftenest, who is whipped easiest; and that slave who has the courage to stand up for himself against the overseer, although he may have many hard stripes at the first, becomes, in the end, a freeman, even though he sustain the formal relation of a slave. “you can shoot me but you can’t whip me,” said a slave to rigby hopkins; and the result was that he was neither whipped nor shot. if the latter had been his fate, it would have been less deplorable than the living and lingering death to which cowardly and slavish souls are subjected. i do not know that mr. sevier ever undertook to whip nelly again. he probably never did, for it was not long after his attempt to subdue her, that he was taken sick, and died. the wretched man died as he had lived, unrepentant; and it was said—with how much truth i know not—that in the very last hours of his life, his ruling passion showed itself, and that when wrestling with death, he was uttering horrid oaths, and flourishing the cowskin, as though he was tearing the flesh off some helpless slave. one thing is certain, that when he was in health, it was enough to chill the blood, and to stiffen the hair of an ordinary man, to hear mr. sevier talk. nature, or his cruel habits, had given to his face an expression of unusual savageness, even for a slave-driver. tobacco and rage had worn his teeth short, and nearly every sentence that escaped their compressed grating, was commenced or concluded with some outburst of profanity. his presence made the field alike the field of blood, and of blasphemy. hated for his cruelty, despised for his cowardice, his death was deplored by no one outside his own house—if indeed it was deplored there; it was regarded by the slaves as a merciful interposition of providence. never went there a man to the grave loaded with heavier curses. mr. sevier’s place was promptly taken by a mr. hopkins, and the change was quite a relief, he being a very different man. he was, in[75] all respects, a better man than his predecessor; as good as any man can be, and yet be an overseer. his course was characterized by no extraordinary cruelty; and when he whipped a slave, as he sometimes did, he seemed to take no especial pleasure in it, but, on the contrary, acted as though he felt it to be a mean business. mr. hopkins stayed but a short time; his place much to the regret of the slaves generally—was taken by a mr. gore, of whom more will be said hereafter. it is enough, for the present, to say, that he was no improvement on mr. sevier, except that he was less noisy and less profane.

i have already referred to the business-like aspect of col. lloyd’s plantation. this business-like appearance was much increased on the two days at the end of each month, when the slaves from the different farms came to get their monthly allowance of meal and meat. these were gala days for the slaves, and there was much rivalry among them as to who should be elected to go up to the great house farm for the allowance, and, indeed, to attend to any business at this (for them) the capital. the beauty and grandeur of the place, its numerous slave population, and the fact that harry, peter and jake the sailors of the sloop—almost always kept, privately, little trinkets which they bought at baltimore, to sell, made it a privilege to come to the great house farm. being selected, too, for this office, was deemed a high honor. it was taken as a proof of confidence and favor; but, probably, the chief motive of the competitors for the place, was, a desire to break the dull monotony of the field, and to get beyond the overseer’s eye and lash. once on the road with an ox team, and seated on the tongue of his cart, with no overseer to look after him, the slave was comparatively free; and, if thoughtful, he had time to think. slaves are generally expected to sing as well as to work. a silent slave is not liked by masters or overseers. “make a noise,” “make a noise,” and “bear a hand,” are the words usually addressed to the slaves when there is silence amongst them. this may account for the almost constant singing[76] heard in the southern states. there was, generally, more or less singing among the teamsters, as it was one means of letting the overseer know where they were, and that they were moving on with the work. but, on allowance day, those who visited the great house farm were peculiarly excited and noisy. while on their way, they would make the dense old woods, for miles around, reverberate with their wild notes. these were not always merry because they were wild. on the contrary, they were mostly of a plaintive cast, and told a tale of grief and sorrow. in the most boisterous outbursts of rapturous sentiment, there was ever a tinge of deep melancholy. i have never heard any songs like those anywhere since i left slavery, except when in ireland. there i heard the same wailing notes, and was much affected by them. it was during the famine of 1845-6. in all the songs of the slaves, there was ever some expression in praise of the great house farm; something which would flatter the pride of the owner, and, possibly, draw a favorable glance from him.

i am going away to the great house farm,

o yea! o yea! o yea!

my old master is a good old master,

o yea! o yea! o yea!

this they would sing, with other words of their own improvising—jargon to others, but full of meaning to themselves. i have sometimes thought, that the mere hearing of those songs would do more to impress truly spiritual-minded men and women with the soul-crushing and death-dealing character of slavery, than the reading of whole volumes of its mere physical cruelties. they speak to the heart and to the soul of the thoughtful. i cannot better express my sense of them now, than ten years ago, when, in sketching my life, i thus spoke of this feature of my plantation experience:

i did not, when a slave, understand the deep meanings of those rude, and apparently incoherent songs. i was myself within the circle, so that i neither saw or heard as those without might see and hear. they told a tale which was[77] then altogether beyond my feeble comprehension; they were tones, loud, long and deep, breathing the prayer and complaint of souls boiling over with the bitterest anguish. every tone was a testimony against slavery, and a prayer to god for deliverance from chains. the hearing of those wild notes always depressed my spirits, and filled my heart with ineffable sadness. the mere recurrence, even now, afflicts my spirit, and while i am writing these lines, my tears are falling. to those songs i trace my first glimmering conceptions of the dehumanizing character of slavery. i can never get rid of that conception. those songs still follow me, to deepen my hatred of slavery, and quicken my sympathies for my brethren in bonds. if any one wishes to be impressed with a sense of the soul-killing power of slavery, let him go to col. lloyd’s plantation, and, on allowance day, place himself in the deep, pine woods, and there let him, in silence, thoughtfully analyze the sounds that shall pass through the chambers of his soul, and if he is not thus impressed, it will only be because “there is no flesh in his obdurate heart.”

the remark is not unfrequently made, that slaves are the most contended and happy laborers in the world. they dance and sing, and make all manner of joyful noises—so they do; but it is a great mistake to suppose them happy because they sing. the songs of the slave represent the sorrows, rather than the joys, of his heart; and he is relieved by them, only as an aching heart is relieved by its tears. such is the constitution of the human mind, that, when pressed to extremes, it often avails itself of the most opposite methods. extremes meet in mind as in matter. when the slaves on board of the “pearl” were overtaken, arrested, and carried to prison—their hopes for freedom blasted—as they marched in chains they sang, and found (as emily edmunson tells us) a melancholy relief in singing. the singing of a man cast away on a desolate island, might be as appropriately considered an evidence of his contentment and happiness, as the singing of a slave. sorrow and desolation have their songs, as well as joy and peace. slaves sing more to make themselves happy, than to express their happiness.

it is the boast of slaveholders, that their slaves enjoy more of the physical comforts of life than the peasantry of any country in the world. my experience contradicts this. the men and the women slaves on col. lloyd’s farm, received, as their monthly[78] allowance of food, eight pounds of pickled pork, or their equivalent in fish. the pork was often tainted, and the fish was of the poorest quality—herrings, which would bring very little if offered for sale in any northern market. with their pork or fish, they had one bushel of indian meal—unbolted—of which quite fifteen per cent was fit only to feed pigs. with this, one pint of salt was given; and this was the entire monthly allowance of a full grown slave, working constantly in the open field, from morning until night, every day in the month except sunday, and living on a fraction more than a quarter of a pound of meat per day, and less than a peck of corn-meal per week. there is no kind of work that a man can do which requires a better supply of food to prevent physical exhaustion, than the field-work of a slave. so much for the slave’s allowance of food; now for his raiment. the yearly allowance of clothing for the slaves on this plantation, consisted of two tow-linen shirts—such linen as the coarsest crash towels are made of; one pair of trowsers of the same material, for summer, and a pair of trowsers and a jacket of woolen, most slazily put together, for winter; one pair of yarn stockings, and one pair of shoes of the coarsest description. the slave’s entire apparel could not have cost more than eight dollars per year. the allowance of food and clothing for the little children, was committed to their mothers, or to the older slavewomen having the care of them. children who were unable to work in the field, had neither shoes, stockings, jackets nor trowsers given them. their clothing consisted of two coarse tow-linen shirts—already described—per year; and when these failed them, as they often did, they went naked until the next allowance day. flocks of little children from five to ten years old, might be seen on col. lloyd’s plantation, as destitute of clothing as any little heathen on the west coast of africa; and this, not merely during the summer months, but during the frosty weather of march. the little girls were no better off than the boys; all were nearly in a state of nudity.[79]

as to beds to sleep on, they were known to none of the field hands; nothing but a coarse blanket—not so good as those used in the north to cover horses—was given them, and this only to the men and women. the children stuck themselves in holes and corners, about the quarters; often in the corner of the huge chimneys, with their feet in the ashes to keep them warm. the want of beds, however, was not considered a very great privation. time to sleep was of far greater importance, for, when the day’s work is done, most of the slaves have their washing, mending and cooking to do; and, having few or none of the ordinary facilities for doing such things, very many of their sleeping hours are consumed in necessary preparations for the duties of the coming day.

the sleeping apartments—if they may be called such—have little regard to comfort or decency. old and young, male and female, married and single, drop down upon the common clay floor, each covering up with his or her blanket,—the only protection they have from cold or exposure. the night, however, is shortened at both ends. the slaves work often as long as they can see, and are late in cooking and mending for the coming day; and, at the first gray streak of morning, they are summoned to the field by the driver’s horn.

more slaves are whipped for oversleeping than for any other fault. neither age nor sex finds any favor. the overseer stands at the quarter door, armed with stick and cowskin, ready to whip any who may be a few minutes behind time. when the horn is blown, there is a rush for the door, and the hindermost one is sure to get a blow from the overseer. young mothers who worked in the field, were allowed an hour, about ten o’clock in the morning, to go home to nurse their children. sometimes they were compelled to take their children with them, and to leave them in the corner of the fences, to prevent loss of time in nursing them. the overseer generally rides about the field on horseback. a cowskin and a hickory stick are his constant companions. the[80] cowskin is a kind of whip seldom seen in the northern states. it is made entirely of untanned, but dried, ox hide, and is about as hard as a piece of well-seasoned live oak. it is made of various sizes, but the usual length is about three feet. the part held in the hand is nearly an inch in thickness; and, from the extreme end of the butt or handle, the cowskin tapers its whole length to a point. this makes it quite elastic and springy. a blow with it, on the hardest back, will gash the flesh, and make the blood start. cowskins are painted red, blue and green, and are the favorite slave whip. i think this whip worse than the “cat-o’nine-tails.” it condenses the whole strength of the arm to a single point, and comes with a spring that makes the air whistle. it is a terrible instrument, and is so handy, that the overseer can always have it on his person, and ready for use. the temptation to use it is ever strong; and an overseer can, if disposed, always have cause for using it. with him, it is literally a word and a blow, and, in most cases, the blow comes first.

as a general rule, slaves do not come to the quarters for either breakfast or dinner, but take their “ash cake” with them, and eat it in the field. this was so on the home plantation; probably, because the distance from the quarter to the field, was sometimes two, and even three miles.

the dinner of the slaves consisted of a huge piece of ash cake, and a small piece of pork, or two salt herrings. not having ovens, nor any suitable cooking utensils, the slaves mixed their meal with a little water, to such thickness that a spoon would stand erect in it; and, after the wood had burned away to coals and ashes, they would place the dough between oak leaves and lay it carefully in the ashes, completely covering it; hence, the bread is called ash cake. the surface of this peculiar bread is covered with ashes, to the depth of a sixteenth part of an inch, and the ashes, certainly, do not make it very grateful to the teeth, nor render it very palatable. the bran, or coarse part of the meal, is baked with the fine, and bright scales run through the bread.[81] this bread, with its ashes and bran, would disgust and choke a northern man, but it is quite liked by the slaves. they eat it with avidity, and are more concerned about the quantity than about the quality. they are far too scantily provided for, and are worked too steadily, to be much concerned for the quality of their food. the few minutes allowed them at dinner time, after partaking of their coarse repast, are variously spent. some lie down on the “turning row,” and go to sleep; others draw together, and talk; and others are at work with needle and thread, mending their tattered garments. sometimes you may hear a wild, hoarse laugh arise from a circle, and often a song. soon, however, the overseer comes dashing through the field. “tumble up! tumble up, and to work, work,” is the cry; and, now, from twelve o’clock (mid-day) till dark, the human cattle are in motion, wielding their clumsy hoes; hurried on by no hope of reward, no sense of gratitude, no love of children, no prospect of bettering their condition; nothing, save the dread and terror of the slave-driver’s lash. so goes one day, and so comes and goes another.

but, let us now leave the rough usage of the field, where vulgar coarseness and brutal cruelty spread themselves and flourish, rank as weeds in the tropics; where a vile wretch, in the shape of a man, rides, walks, or struts about, dealing blows, and leaving gashes on broken-spirited men and helpless women, for thirty dollars per month—a business so horrible, hardening and disgraceful, that, rather, than engage in it, a decent man would blow his own brains out—and let the reader view with me the equally wicked, but less repulsive aspects of slave life; where pride and pomp roll luxuriously at ease; where the toil of a thousand men supports a single family in easy idleness and sin. this is the great house; it is the home of the lloyds! some idea of its splendor has already been given—and, it is here that we shall find that height of luxury which is the opposite of that depth of poverty and physical wretchedness that we have just now been contemplating. but, there is this difference in the two extremes;[82] viz: that in the case of the slave, the miseries and hardships of his lot are imposed by others, and, in the master’s case, they are imposed by himself. the slave is a subject, subjected by others; the slaveholder is a subject, but he is the author of his own subjection. there is more truth in the saying, that slavery is a greater evil to the master than to the slave, than many, who utter it, suppose. the self-executing laws of eternal justice follow close on the heels of the evil-doer here, as well as elsewhere; making escape from all its penalties impossible. but, let others philosophize; it is my province here to relate and describe; only allowing myself a word or two, occasionally, to assist the reader in the proper understanding of the facts narrated.