babylon.—this city was first taken by ninus, b.c. 2059, then by esar-haddon, b.c. 680. both darius and cyrus took the city, the first through the fidelity of his officer zopyrus, who having cut off his nose and ears fled to the babylonians, and was admitted within the walls, and found means shortly afterwards to betray the city—the other by turning the course of the river euphrates, and marching his soldiers up the dry bed into the city.

badajos, siege of.—this important frontier fortress had surrendered to the french, march 11th, 1811, and was invested by the british under lord wellington, on march 16th, 1812; and stormed and taken on april following. the siege is one of the most important in the annals of warfare; for the victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, but it obliged the french, who had entered portugal for the purpose of plunder, to commence a precipitate retreat from that kingdom. for particulars, see life of wellington, and napier’s peninsular war.

[41]

baden, treaty of.—between france and the emperor, september 7th, 1814. it was erected into a grand duchy of the rhenish confederation in 1806. its territorial acquisitions, by its alliance with france, was guaranteed by the vienna congress of 1815.

balaklava, battle of.—fought october 25th, 1854. if the exhibition of the most brilliant valour, of the excess of courage, and of a daring which would have reflected lustre on the best days of chivalry can afford full consolation for the disaster of to-day, we can have no reason to regret the melancholy loss which we sustained in a contest with a savage and barbarous enemy.

i shall proceed to describe, to the best of my power, what occurred under my own eyes, and to state the facts which i have heard from men whose veracity is unimpeachable, reserving to myself the exercise of the right of private judgment in making public and in suppressing the details of what occurred on this memorable day. before i proceed to my narrative, i must premise that a certain feeling existed in some quarters that our cavalry had not been properly handled since they landed in the crimea, and that they had lost golden opportunities from the indecision and excessive caution of their leaders. it was said that our cavalry ought to have been man?uvred at bouljanak in one way or in another, according to the fancy of the critic. it was affirmed, too, that the light cavalry were utterly useless in the performance of one of their most important duties—the collection of supplies for the army—that they were “above their business, and too fine gentlemen for their work;” that our horse should have pushed on after the flying enemy after the battle of the alma, to their utter confusion, and with the certainty of taking many guns and prisoners; and, above all, that at mackenzie’s farm first, and at the gorge near inkermann, subsequently, they had been improperly restrained from charging, and had failed in gaining great successes, which would have entitled them to a full share of the laurels of the campaign, solely owing to the timidity of the officer in command. the existence of this feeling was known to many of our cavalry, and they were indignant and exasperated that the faintest shade of suspicion should rest on any of their corps. with the justice of these aspersions they seemed to think they had nothing to do, and perhaps the prominent thought in their minds was that they would give such an example of courage to the world, if the chance offered itself, as would shame their detractors for ever.

in my last i mentioned that several battalions of russian infantry had[42] crossed the tchernaya, and that they threatened the rear of our position and our communication with balaklava. their bands could be heard playing at night by the travellers along the balaklava road to the camp, but they “showed” but little during the day, and kept up among the gorges and mountain passes through which the roads to inkermann, simpheropol, and the south-east, of the crimea wind towards the interior. the position we occupied, in reference to balaklava was supposed by most people to be very strong—even impregnable. our lines were formed by natural mountain slopes in the rear, along which the french had made very formidable entrenchments. below those entrenchments, and very nearly in a right line across the valley beneath, are four conical hillocks, one rising above the other as they recede from our lines; the furthest, which joins the chain of mountains opposite to our ridges being named canrobert’s hill, from the meeting there of that general with lord raglan after the march to balaklava. on the top of each of these hills the turks had thrown up earthen redoubts, defended by 250 men each, and armed with two or three guns—some heavy ship guns—lent by us to them, with one artilleryman in each redoubt to look after them. these hills cross the valley of balaklava at the distance of about two and a half miles from the town. supposing the spectator, then, to take his stand on one of the heights forming the rear of our camp before sebastopol, he would see the town of balaklava, with its scanty shipping, its narrow strip of water, and its old forts on his right hand; immediately below he would behold the valley and plain of coarse meadow land, occupied by our cavalry tents, and stretching from the base of the ridge on which he stood to the foot of the formidable heights at the other side; he would see the french trenches lined with zouaves a few feet beneath, and distant from him, on the slope of the hill; a turkish redoubt lower down, then another in the valley, then, in a line with it, some angular earthworks, then, in succession, the other two redoubts up to canrobert’s hill. at the distance of two or two and a half miles across the valley there is an abrupt rocky mountain range of most irregular and picturesque formation, covered with scanty brushwood here and there, or rising into barren pinnacles and plateaux of rock. in outline and appearance this portion of the landscape is wonderfully like the trosachs. a patch of blue sea is caught in between the overhanging cliff’s of balaklava as they close in the entrance to the harbour on the right. the camp of the marines, pitched on the hill sides more than 1000 feet above the level of the sea, is opposite to you as your back is turned to sebastopol and your right side towards[43] balaklava. on the road leading up the valley, close to the entrance of the town, and beneath these hills, is the encampment of the 93rd highlanders.

the cavalry lines are nearer to you below, and are some way in advance of the highlanders, but nearer to the town than the turkish redoubts. the valley is crossed here and there by small waves of land. on your left the hills and rocky mountain ranges gradually close in towards the course of the tchernaya, till at three or four miles’ distance from balaklava, the valley is swallowed up in a mountain gorge and deep ravines, above which rise tiers after tiers of desolate whitish rock, garnished now and then by bits of scanty herbage, and spreading away towards the east and south, where they attain the alpine dimensions of the tschatir dugh. it is very easy for an enemy at the belbek, or in command of the road of mackenzies’s farm, inkermann, simpheropol, or bakshiserai, to debouch through these gorges at any time upon this plain from the neck of the valley, or to march from sebastopol by the tchernaya, and to advance along it towards balaklava, till checked by the turkish redoubts on the southern side, or by the fire from the french works on the northern side—i.e., the side which, in relation to the valley to balaklava, forms the rear of our position. it was evident enough that menschikoff and gortschakoff had been feeling their way along this route for several days past, and very probably at night the cossacks had crept up close to our picquets, which are not always as watchful as might be desired, and had observed the weakness of a position far too extended for our army to defend, and occupied by their despised enemy, the turks.

at half-past seven o’clock this morning, an orderly came galloping in to the head-quarters camp from balaklava, with the news, that at dawn a strong corps of russian horse, supported by guns and battalions of infantry had marched into the valley, and had already nearly dispossessed the turks of the redoubt no 1, (that on canrobert’ hill, which is farthest from our lines), and that they were opening fire on the redoubts nos. 2, 3, and 4, which would speedily be in their hands unless the turks offered a stouter resistance than they had done already.

orders were despatched to sir george cathcart, and to h.r.h. the duke of cambridge, to put their respective divisions, the fourth and the first, in motion for the scene of action; and intelligence of the advance of the russians was also furnished to general canrobert. immediately on receipt of the news, the general commanded general bosquet to get the third division under arms, and sent a strong body[44] of artillery and some 200 chasseurs d’afrique to assist us in holding the valley. sir colin campbell, who was in command of balaklava, had drawn up the 93rd highlanders a little in front of the road to the town, at the first news of the advance of the enemy. the marines on the heights got under arms; the seamen’s batteries and marines’ batteries, on the heights close to the town, were manned, and the french artillerymen and the zouaves prepared for action along their lines. lord lucan’s little camp was the scene of great excitement. the men had not had time to water their horses; they had not broken their fast from the evening of the day before, and had barely saddled at the first blast of the trumpet, when they were drawn up on the slope behind the redoubts in front of their camp to operate on the enemy’s squadrons. it was soon evident that no reliance was to be placed on the turkish infantry or artillerymen. all the stories we had heard about their bravery behind stone walls and earthworks proved how differently the same or similar people fight under different circumstances. when the russians advanced, the turks fired a few rounds at them, got frightened at the distance of their supports in the rear, looked round, received a few shots and shell, and then “bolted,” and fled with an agility quite at variance with common-place notions of oriental deportment on the battle-field. but turks on the danube are very different beings from turks in the crimea, as it appears that the russians of sebastopol are not at all like the russians of silistria.

soon after eight o’clock, lord raglan and his staff turned out and cantered towards the rear of our position. the booming of the artillery, the spattering roll of musketry, were heard rising from the valley, drowning the roar of the siege guns in front before sebastopol. as i rode in the direction of the firing, over the thistles and large stones which cover the undulating plain that stretches away towards balaklava, on a level with the summit of the ridges above it, i observed a french light infantry regiment (the 27th, i think) advancing with admirable care and celerity from our right towards the ridge near the telegraph-house, which was already lined by companies of french infantry, while mounted officers scampered along its broken outline in every direction.

general bosquet, a stout soldierlike-looking man, who reminds one of the old genre of french generals as depicted at versailles, followed, with his staff and a small escort of hussars, at a gallop. faint white clouds rose here and there above the hill from the cannonade below. never did the painter’s eye rest on a more beautiful scene than i beheld from the[45] ridge. the fleecy vapours still hung around the mountain tops, and mingled with the ascending volumes of smoke; the patch of sea sparkled freshly in the rays of the morning sun, but its light was eclipsed by the flashes which gleamed from the massess of armed men below.

looking to the left towards the gorge, we beheld six compact masses of russian infantry, which had just debouched from the mountain passes near tchernaya, and were slowly advancing with solemn stateliness up the valley. immediately in their front was a regular line of artillery, of at least twenty pieces strong. two batteries of light guns were already a mile in advance of them, and were playing with energy on the redoubts, from which feeble puffs of smoke came at long intervals. behind these guns, in front of the infantry, were enormous bodies of cavalry. they were in six compact squares, three on each flank, moving down en échelon towards us, and the valley was lit up with the blaze of their sabres, and lance points, and gay accoutrements. in their front, and extending along the intervals between each battery of guns, were clouds of mounted skirmishers, wheeling and whirling in the front of their march like autumn leaves tossed by the wind. the zouaves close to us were lying like tigers at the spring, with ready rifles in hand, hidden chin deep by the earthworks which run along the line of these ridges on our rear, but the quick-eyed russians were man?uvring on the other side of the valley, and did not expose their columns to attack. below the zouaves we could see the turkish gunners in the redoubts, all in confusion as the shells burst over them. just as i came up, the russians had carried no. 1 redoubt, the farthest and most elevated of all, and their horsemen were chasing the turks across the interval which lay between it and redoubt no. 2. at that moment the cavalry, under lord lucan, were formed in glittering masses—the light brigade, under lord cardigan, in advance; the heavy brigade, under brigadier-general scarlet, in reserve. they were drawn up just in front of their encampment, and were concealed from the view of the enemy by a slight “wave” in the plain. considerably to the rear of their right, the 93rd highlanders were drawn up in line, in front of the approach to balaklava. above and behind them, on the heights, the marines were visible through the glass, drawn up under arms, and the gunners could be seen ready in the earthworks, in which were placed the heavy ships’ guns. the 93rd had originally been advanced somewhat more into the plain, but the instant the russians got possession of the first redoubt they opened fire on them from our own guns which inflicted some injury, and sir colin campbell “retired” his men to a better position. meantime the enemy advanced his cavalry[46] rapidly. to our inexpressible disgust we saw the turks in redoubt no. 2 fly at their approach. they ran in scattered groups across towards redoubt no. 3, and towards balaklava, but the horse-hoof of the cossack was too quick for them, and sword and lance were busily plied among the retreating herd. the yells of the pursuers and pursued were plainly audible. as the lancers and light cavalry of the russians advanced they gathered up their skirmishers with great speed and in excellent order—the shifting trails of men, which played all over the valley like moonlight on the water, contracted, gathered up, and the little peloton in a few moments became a solid column. then up came their guns, in rushed their gunners to the abandoned redoubt, and the guns of no. 2 redoubt soon played with deadly effect upon the dispirited defenders of no. 3 redoubt. two or three shots in return from the earthworks, and all is silent. the turks swarm over the earthworks, and run in confusion towards the town, firing their muskets at the enemy as they run. again the solid column of cavalry opens like a fan, and resolves itself into a “long spray” of skirmishers. it laps the flying turks, steel flashes in the air, and down go the poor moslem quivering on the plain, split through fez and musket-guard to the chin and breast-belt. there is no support for them. it is evident the russians have been too quick for us. the turks have been too quick also, for they have not held their redoubts long enough to enable us to bring them help. in vain the turkish gunners in the earthen batteries which are placed along the french entrenchments strive to protect their flying countrymen; their shot fly wide and short of the swarming masses. the turks betake themselves towards the highlanders, where they check their flight and form into companies on the flanks of the highlanders. as the russian cavalry on the left of their line crown the hill across the valley, they perceive the highlanders drawn up at the distance of some half mile, calmly awaiting their approach. they halt, and squadron after squadron flies up from the rear, till they have a body of some 1500 men along the ridge—lancers, and dragoons, and hussars. then they move en échelon in two bodies, with another in reserve. the cavalry who have been pursuing the turks on the right are coming up to the ridge beneath us, which conceals our cavalry from view. the heavy brigade in advance is drawn up in two lines. the first line consists of the scots greys, and of their old companions in glory, the enniskillens; the second of the 4th royal irish, of the 5th dragoon guards, and of the 1st royal dragoons. the light cavalry brigade is on their left, in two lines also. the silence is oppressive; between the cannon bursts one can[47] hear the champing of bits and the clink of sabres in the valley below. the russians on their left drew breath for a moment, and then in one grand line charged in towards balaklava. the ground flies beneath their horses’ feet; gathering speed at every stride, they dash on towards that thin red streak topped with a line of steel. the turks fire a volley at eight hundred yards and run. as the russians come within six hundred yards, down goes that line of steel in front, and out rings a rolling volley of minié musketry. the distance is too great; the russians are not checked, but still sweep onwards through the smoke, with the whole force of horse and man, here and there knocked over by the shot of our batteries above. with breathless suspense every one awaits the bursting of the wave upon the line of gaelic rock; but ere they come within two hundred and fifty yards, another deadly volley flashes from the levelled rifle, and carries terror into the russians. they wheel about, open files right and left, and fly back faster than they came. “bravo highlanders! well done!” shout the excited spectators; but events thicken. the highlanders and their splendid front are soon forgotten, men scarcely have a moment to think of this fact, that the 93rd never altered their formation to receive that tide of horsemen. “no,” said sir colin campbell, “i did not think it worth while to form them even four deep!” the ordinary british line, two deep, was quite sufficient to repel the attack of these muscovite cavaliers. our eyes were, however, turned in a moment on our own cavalry. we saw brigadier-general scarlett ride along in front of his massive squadrons. the russians—evidently corps d’elite—their light blue jackets embroidered with silver lace, were advancing on their left, at an easy gallop, towards the brow of the hill. a forest of lances glistened in their rear, and several squadrons of grey-coated dragoons moved up quickly to support them as they reached the summit. the instant they came in sight the trumpets of our cavalry gave out the warning blast which told us all that in another moment we should see the shock of battle beneath our very eyes. lord raglan, all his staff and escort, and groups of officers, the zouaves, french generals and officers, and bodies of french infantry on the height, were spectators of the scene as though they were looking on the stage from the boxes of a theatre. nearly every one dismounted and sat down, and not a word was said. the russians advanced down the hill at a slow canter, which they changed to a trot, and at last nearly halted. their first line was at least double the length of ours—it was three times as deep. behind them was a similar line, equally strong and compact. they evidently[48] despised their insignificant looking enemy, but their time was come. the trumpets rang out again through the valley, and the greys and enniskilleners went right at the centre of the russian cavalry. the space between them was only a few hundred yards; it was scarce enough to let the horses “gather away,” nor had the men quite space sufficient for the full play of their sword arms. the russian line brings forward each wing as our cavalry advance, and threatens to annihilate them as they pass on. turning a little to their left, so as to meet the russian right, the greys rush on with a cheer that thrills to every heart—the wild shout of the enniskilleners rises through the air at the same instant. as lightning flashes through a cloud, the greys and enniskilleners pierced through the dark masses of russians. the shock was but for a moment. there was a clash of steel and a light play of swordblades in the air, and then the greys and the redcoats disappear in the midst of the shaken and quivering columns. in another moment we see them emerging and dashing on with diminished numbers, and in broken order, against the second line, which is advancing against them as fast as it can to retrieve the fortune of the charge. it was a terrible moment. “god help them! they are lost” was the exclamation of more than one man, and the thought of many. with unabated fire the noble hearts dashed at their enemy. it was a fight of heroes. the first line of russians, which had been smashed utterly by our charge, and had fled off at one flank and towards the centre, were coming back to swallow up our handful of men. by sheer steel and sheer courage enniskillener and scot were winning their desperate way right through the enemy’s squadrons, and already grey horses and red coats had appeared right at the rear of the second mass, when, with irresistible force, like one bolt from a bow, the 1st royals, the 4th dragoon guards, and the 5th dragoon guards rushed at the remnants of the first line of the enemy, went through it as though it were made of pasteboard, and dashing on the second body of russians as they were still disordered by the terrible assault of the greys and their companions, put them to utter rout. the russian horse in less than five minutes after it met our dragoons was flying with all its speed before a force certainly not half its strength. a cheer burst from every lip—in the enthusiasm, officers and men took off their caps and shouted with delight, and thus keeping up the scenic character of their position, they clapped their hands again and again. lord raglan at once despatched lieutenant curzon, aide-de-camp, to convey his congratulations to brigadier-general scarlett, and to say “well done.” the gallant old[49] officer’s face beamed with pleasure when he received the message. “i beg to thank his lordship very sincerely,” was his reply. the cavalry did not long pursue their enemy. their loss was very slight, about thirty-five killed and wounded in both affairs. there were not more than four or five men killed outright, and our most material loss was from the cannon playing on our heavy dragoons afterwards, when covering the retreat of our light cavalry.

in the royal horse artillery we had a severe, but i am glad to say a temporary loss. captain maude, who directed the service of his guns with his usual devotedness and dauntless courage, was struck in the arm by a shell which burst at his saddle bow and killed his horse. to the joy of all the army, it is ascertained that he is doing well on board ship. after the charge, captain the hon. arthur hardinge came galloping up to lord raglan with the news of what the cavalry had done.

at ten o’clock the guards and highlanders of the first division were seen moving towards the plains from their camp. the duke of cambridge came up to lord raglan for orders, and his lordship, ready to give the honour of the day to sir colin campbell, who commands at balaklava, told his royal highness to place himself under the direction of the brigadier. at forty minutes after ten, the fourth division also took up their position in advance of balaklava. the cavalry were then on the left front of our position, facing the enemy; the light cavalry brigade was on the left flank forward; the heavy cavalry brigade en échelon in reserve, with guns on the right; the 4th dragoons and 5th dragoons and greys on the left of the brigade, the enniskillens and 3rd dragoons on the right. the fourth division took up ground in the centre; the guards and highlanders filed off towards the extreme right, and faced the redoubts, from which the russians opened on them with such guns as had not been spiked.

at fifty minutes after ten, general canrobert, attended by his staff and brigadier-general rose, rode up to lord raglan, and the staffs of the two generals and their escorts mingled together in praise of the magnificent charge of our cavalry, while the chiefs apart conversed over the operations of the day, which promised to be one of battle. the russian cavalry, followed by our shot, had retired in confusion, leaving the ground covered with horses and men. in carrying an order early in the day mr. blunt, lord lucan’s interpreter, and son of our consul in thessaly, had a narrow escape. his horse was killed, he seized a russian charger as it galloped past riderless, but the horse carried him almost into[50] the russian cavalry, and he only saved himself by leaping into a redoubt among a number of frightened turks who were praying to allah on their bellies. at fifty-five minutes after ten, a body of cavalry, the chasseurs d’afrique, passed down to the plain, and were loudly cheered by our men. they took up ground in advance of the ridges on our left.

and now occurred the melancholy catastrophe which fills us all with sorrow. it appears that the quartermaster-general, brigadier airey, thinking that the light cavalry had not gone far enough in front when the enemy’s horse had fled, gave an order in writing to captain nolan, 15th hussars, to take to lord lucan, directing his lordship “to advance” his cavalry nearer to the enemy. a braver soldier than captain nolan the army did not possess. he was known to all his arm of the service for his entire devotion to his profession, and his name must be familiar to all who take interest in our cavalry for his excellent work, published a year ago, on our drill and system of remount and breaking horses. i had the pleasure of his acquaintance, and i know he entertained the most exalted opinions respecting the capabilities of the english horse soldier. properly led, the british hussar and dragoon could in his mind break square, take batteries, ride over columns of infantry, and pierce any other cavalry in the world as if they were made of straw. he thought that they had not had the opportunity of doing all that was in their power, and that they had missed even such chances as they had offered to them,—that, in fact, they were in some measure disgraced. a matchless horseman and a first-rate swordsman, he held in contempt, i am afraid, even grape and canister. he rode off with his orders to lord lucan. he is now dead and gone. god forbid i should cast a shade on the brightness of his honour, but i am bound to state what i am told occurred when he reached his lordship. i should premise that as the russian cavalry retired, their infantry fell back towards the head of the valley, leaving men in three of the redoubts they had taken, and abandoning the fourth. they had also placed some guns on the heights over their position on the left of the gorge. their cavalry joined the reserve, and drew up in six solid divisions, in an oblique line across the entrance to the gorge. six battalions of infantry were placed behind them, and about thirty guns were drawn up along their line, while masses of infantry were also collected on the hills behind the redoubts on our right. our cavalry had moved up to the ridge across the valley, on our left, as the ground was broken in front, and had halted in the order i have already mentioned. when lord lucan received the order from captain nolan[51] and had read it, he asked, we are told, “where are we to advance to?” captain nolan pointed with his finger to the line of the russians, and said, “there are the enemy, and there are the guns, sir, before them; it is your duty to take them,” or words to that effect, according to the statements made since his death. lord lucan, with reluctance, gave the order to lord cardigan to advance upon the guns, conceiving that his orders compelled him to do so. the noble earl, though he did not shrink, also saw the fearful odds against him. don quixote in his tilt against the windmill was not near so rash and reckless as the gallant fellows who prepared without a thought to rush on almost certain death. it is a maxim of war, that “cavalry never act without a support,” that “infantry should be close at hand when cavalry carry guns, as the effect is only instantaneous, and that it is necessary to have on the flank of a line of cavalry some squadrons in column, the attack on the flank being most dangerous. the only support our light cavalry had was the reserve of heavy cavalry at a great distance behind them, the infantry and guns being far in the rear. there were no squadrons in column at all, and there was a plain to charge over, before the enemy’s guns were reached, of a mile and a half in length.

at ten minutes past eleven, our light cavalry brigade advanced. the whole brigade scarcely made one effective regiment, according to the numbers of continental armies; and yet it was more than we could spare. as they rushed towards the front, the russians opened on them from the guns in the redoubt on the right, with volleys of musketry and rifles. they swept proudly past, glittering in the morning sun in all the pride and splendour of war. we could scarcely believe the evidence of our senses! surely that handful of men are not going to charge an army in position? alas! it was but too true—their desperate valour knew no bounds, and far indeed was it removed from its so-called better part—discretion. they advanced in two lines, quickening their pace as they closed towards the enemy. a more fearful spectacle was never witnessed than by those who, without the power to aid, beheld their heroic countrymen rushing to the arms of death. at the distance of 1200 yards the whole line of the enemy belched forth, from thirty iron mouths, a flood of smoke and flame, through which hissed the deadly balls. their flight was marked by instant gaps in our ranks, by dead men and horses, by steeds flying wounded or riderless across the plain. the first line is broken, it is joined by the second, they never halt or check their speed an instant; with diminished ranks, thinned by those thirty guns, which[52] the russians had laid with the most deadly accuracy, with a halo of flashing steel above their heads, and with a cheer which was many a noble fellow’s death-cry, they flew into the smoke of the batteries, but ere they were lost from view the plain was strewed with their bodies and with the carcasses of horses. they were exposed to an oblique fire from the batteries on the hills on both sides, as well as to a direct fire of musketry. through the clouds of smoke we could see their sabres flashing as they rode up to the guns and dashed between them, cutting down the gunners as they stood. we saw them riding through the guns, as i have said; to our delight we saw them returning, after breaking through a column of russian infantry, and scattering them like chaff, when the flank fire of the battery on the hill swept them down, scattered and broken as they were. wounded men and dismounted troopers flying towards us told the sad tale—demi-gods could not have done what we had failed to do. at the very moment when they were about to retreat an enormous mass of lancers was hurled on their flank. colonel shewell, of the 8th hussars, saw the danger, and rode his few men straight at them, cutting his way through with fearful loss. the other regiments turned and engaged in a desperate encounter. with courage too great almost for credence, they were breaking their way through the columns which enveloped them, when there took place an act of atrocity without parallel in the modern warfare of civilized nations. the russian gunners, when the storm of cavalry passed, returned to their guns. they saw their own cavalry mingled with the troopers who had just ridden over them, and, to the eternal disgrace of the russian name, the miscreants poured a murderous volley of grape and canister on the mass of struggling men and horses, mingling friend and foe in one common ruin. it was as much as our heavy cavalry brigade could do to cover the retreat of the miserable remnants of that band of heroes as they returned to the place they had so lately quitted in all the pride of life. at thirty-five minutes past eleven not a british soldier, except the dead and dying, was left in front of these bloody muscovite guns.

captain nolan was killed by the first shot fired, as he rode in advance of the hussars, cheering them on. lord lucan was slightly wounded. lord cardigan received a lance thrust through his clothes. major halkett, of the 4th light dragoons, was killed. lord fitzgibbon of the 8th hussars, was desperately wounded, and has since, i fear, died.

in our cavalry fight we had 13 officers killed or missing, 156 men killed or missing: total 169; 21 officers wounded, 197 men wounded;[53] total 218. total killed, wounded, and missing, 387. horses killed or missing, 394; horses wounded 126; total 520.

balkan, passage of the.—this adventurous experiment was deemed impracticable by a hostile army, until effected by the russian army under diebitsch, whose march through the balkan mountains is a memorable achievement of the late great russian and turkish war. the passage was completed july 26th, 1829. an armistice was the consequence; and a treaty of peace was signed at adrianople in september following.

ballinahinch, battle of.—this sanguinary engagement was fought, june 13th, 1798, between the earl of moira, afterwards marquis of hastings, and a large body of insurgent irish. in this battle a large part of the town was destroyed and the royal army suffered very severely.

baltic expeditions.—there were three—1st, under lord nelson and admiral patton, april 2nd, 1801, when copenhagen was bombarded and 28 danish ships taken or destroyed. 2nd, under admiral gambier and lord cathcart, july 27th, 1807, where 18 sail of the line, 15 frigates, and 31 brigs and gunboats surrendered to the british. 3rd, during the crimean war, under admiral sir charles napier, accompanied by a french fleet, the bombardment of bummersund and burning abo were some of the more important actions of the expedition.

baltimore, battle of.—fought september 12th, 1814, between the british army, under general ross, and the americans; the british in making an attack upon the town were unsuccessful, and after a desperate engagement were repulsed with great loss. the gallant general who led the enterprise was killed.

bangalore, siege of.—this siege was commenced by the british, under lord cornwallis, march 6th, and the town was taken march 21st, 1791. bangalore was restored to tippoo, in 1792, when he destroyed the strong fort, deemed the “bulwark of mysore.”

bannockburn, battle of.—this battle is called the “marathon of scotland.” it was fought june 25th, 1314, between king robert bruce of scotland and edward ii, of england. the army[54] of bruce consisted of 30,000 scots, that of edward consisted of 100,000 english, of whom 52,000 were archers. the english crossed a rivulet to the attack, and bruce having dug deep pits, which he afterwards covered, the english cavalry fell into them and were thrown into confusion. the rout was complete—the king narrowly escaped being taken, and 50,000 english were killed or taken prisoners.

bantry bay.—a french fleet, with succors to the adherents of james ii, was in this bay attacked by admiral herbert, may, 1689. here a french squadron anchored for a few days, in december, 1796. the mutiny of bantry bay is famous in naval history—17 of the mutineers were condemned to death, and 11 executed afterwards at portsmouth, january, 1802.

bareilly.—india.—this place is famous in the great indian mutiny.—the following is a description of the attack on the british troops, by a body of ghazees, or fanatics, may 5th, 1859, from dr. russell’s correspondence.

“as soon as the sikhs got into the houses, they were exposed to a heavy fire from a large body of matchlockmen concealed around them. they either retired of their own accord, or were ordered to do so; at all events, they fell back with rapidity and disorder upon the advancing highlanders. and now occurred a most extraordinary scene. among the matchlockmen, who, to the number of seven or eight hundred, were lying behind the walls of the houses, was a body of ghazees, or mussulman fanatics, who, like the roman decii, devote their lives with solemn oaths to their country or their faith. uttering loud cries, ‘bismillah, allah, deen, deen!’ one hundred and thirty of these fanatics, sword in hand, with small circular bucklers on the left arm, and green cummerbungs, rushed out after the sikhs, and dashed at the left of the right wing of the highlanders. with bodies bent and heads low, waving their tulwars with a circular motion in the air, they came on with astonishing rapidity. at first they were mistaken for sikhs, whose passage had already somewhat disordered our ranks. fortunately sir colin campbell was close up with the 42nd; his keen, quick eye detected the case at once. “steady, men, steady; close up the ranks. bayonet them as they come on.” it was just in time; for these madmen, furious with bang, were already among us, and a body of them sweeping around the left of the right wing, got into the rear of the regiment. the struggle was short, but sanguinary. three of them dashed so suddenly at colonel[55] cameron, that they pulled him off his horse ere he could defend himself. his sword fell out of its sheath, and he would have been hacked to pieces in another moment, but for the gallant promptitude of colour sergeant gardiner, who, stepping out of the ranks, drove his bayonet through two of them in the twinkling of an eye. the third was shot by one of the 42nd. brigadier walpole had a similar escape; he was seized by two or three of the ghazees, who sought to pull him off his horse, while others cut at him with their tulwars. he received two cuts on the hand, but he was delivered from the enemy by the quick bayonets of the 42nd. in a few minutes the dead bodies of one hundred and thirty-three of these ghazees, and some eighteen or twenty wounded men of ours, were all the tokens left of the struggle.”

barnet, battle of.—this battle was fought between the houses of york and lancaster, when edward iv gained a decisive and memorable victory over the earl of warwick, on easter day, april 14th, 1471. the earl of warwick, who has been styled in history “the king maker,” his brother, the marquess of montacute, and 10,000 of his army were slain. at the moment warwick fell, he was leading a chosen body of troops into the thickest of the slaughter, and his body was found covered with wounds after the battle.

barracks.—this word is not found in our early dictionaries. in the dictionaire de l’académie, it is thus defined, “baraque—hutte que font les soldats en campagne pour se mettre à couvert.”

barrosa or barossa, battle of.—fought between the british army, commanded by major general graham, afterwards lord lynedoch, and the french, under marshal victor. after a long conflict, the british achieved one of the most glorious triumphs of the peninsular war. although they fought to great disadvantage, they compelled the enemy to retreat, leaving nearly 3000 dead, 6 pieces of cannon and an eagle, the first that the british had taken. the loss of the british was 1169 men in killed and wounded.

basque roads.—this was the place of a heroic achievement by the british. four french ships of the line were, while riding at anchor, attacked by lord gambier and lord cochrane, and all, with a number of merchant ships, destroyed, april 12th, 1809.

batavia.—capital of java.—fortified by the dutch in 1618—12,000[56] chinese massacred here in one day, 1740.—taken by the english january, 1782.—again by the british under general sir s. auchmuty, august 8th, 1811.

batteries.—introduced, after the use of cannon, by the english along the coasts. perhaps the most celebrated batteries on record are those of the french at the siege of gibraltar, september, 1782.

battering-ram.—this was the instrument by which the ancient romans levelled the walls of cities. it consisted of a long beam with a head of iron, like that of a ram, hence the name, and sometimes it was so ponderous that 150 or 200 men at once worked it.

battle-axe.—a weapon of the celtae.—the battle-axe guards, or beaufetiers, who are vulgarly called beef-eaters, and whose arms are a sword and lance, were first raised by henry vii, in 1482.

battlefield, battle of.—near shrewsbury, england.—this engagement was fought between henry iv and percy, surnamed hotspur. the victory was gained by henry, whose usurpation of the throne had laid the foundation of the factions of the houses of york and lancaster, and the civil wars that ensued. it was fought july 21st, 1403.

bautzen, battle of.—between the allied army, under the sovereigns of russia and prussia, and the french, commanded by napoleon; the allies were defeated, and this battle, followed by that of wurtzchen, compelled them to pass the oder, and led to armistice, which, however, did not produce peace. fought may 20th, 1813.

baylen, battle of.—the french, consisting of 14,000 men, commanded by generals dupont and wedel, were defeated by the spaniards under pena, compigny and other generals, whose forces amounted to 25,000. the french had nearly 3000 killed and wounded, and the division of dupont, which consisted of about 8000 men, was made prisoners of war. fought july 19th, 1808.

bayonne.—in the neighbourhood of this town there was much desperate fighting between the french and english armies, december 10th, 11th, and 13th, 1813. bayonne was invested by the british, january 14th, 1814, during which the french made a sally and attacked the english with success, but were at length driven back. the loss of the[57] british was considerable, and lieut.-general sir john hope was wounded and taken prisoner. it was here that the bayonet was first made, in or about a.d. 1670. according to the abbé langlet, it was first used by the french in battle, 1693, “with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter with so formidable a novelty.” adopted by the british, september 26th, 1693.

beachy head, engagement of.—memorable for the defeat of the british and dutch combined fleet, by the french. the british, whose ships were commanded by the earl of torrington, suffered very severely in the unequal contest, june 30th, 1690. the dutch lost two admirals and 500 men, the english two ships and 400 men. several of the dutch ships were sunk to prevent them from falling into the hands of the enemy. the admirals on both sides were blamed; on the english side for not fighting, on the french, for not pursuing the victory.

beague, battle of.—in anjou, france.—fought april 3rd, 1421, between the english and french.—the former commanded by the duke of clarence, the latter by the dauphin of france, who was aided by a body of 7000 scots, under the earl of buchan. the english were defeated with the loss of 1500 men killed, and the duke himself was killed by a scotch knight.

belgrade, battle of.—fought in 1456, between the german and turkish armies, in which the latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men. belgrade was taken by solyman, 1522, and retaken by the imperialists in 1688, from whom it again reverted to the turks in 1690. again taken by prince eugene, in 1717, and kept till 1739, when it was ceded to the turks, after its fine fortifications had been demolished. it was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of reichenbach, 1790. the servian insurgents had possession of it in 1806. the most memorable siege which it sustained was undertaken in may, 1717, by prince eugene. on august 5th of that year, the turkish army, 200,000 strong, approached to relieve it, and a sanguinary battle was fought, in which the turks lost 20,000; after the battle belgrade surrendered. this city is called “the key of eastern christendom,” and “the bulwark of christian europe.”

bellair, battle of.—in america.—this town was attacked[58] by the british forces, under command of sir peter parker; but after an obstinate engagement, in which the result was a long time doubtful, they were repulsed with considerable loss, and their gallant commander was killed. august 30th, 1814.

bender.—is memorable as the asylum of charles xii of sweden, after his defeat at pultowa, by the czar peter the great, july 8th, 1709. the celebrated peace of bender was concluded 1711. it was taken by storm by the russians in 1770, and again in 1789.—restored by the peace of jassey, but retained at the peace of 1812.

beresina, battle of.—fought november 28th, 1812, and resulted in the total defeat of the french main army, by the russians, on the banks of the beresina, followed by their disastrous passage of it when escaping out of russia. the french lost upwards of 20,000 men in this battle, and in their retreat, which was attended by the greatest difficulty, calamity and suffering, the career of their glory was closed in that campaign.

bergen, battles of.—between the french and allies; the latter defeated april 14th, 1759. the allies again defeated by the french, with great loss, september, 1799. in another battle, fought october 2nd, same year, the allies lost 4000 men, and on the 6th, they were again defeated before alkmaer, losing 5000 men. on the 20th, the duke of york entered into a convention, by which he exchanged his army for 6,000 french and dutch prisoners in england.

bergen-op-zoom.—this place, the works of which were deemed impregnable, was taken by the french, september 10th, 1747, and again in 1794. here a gallant attempt was made by the british under general sir t. graham (afterwards lord lynedoch) to carry the fortress by storm, but it was defeated. after forcing an entrance, their retreat was cut off, and a dreadful slaughter ensued; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners. march 8th, 1814.

berlin degree.—a memorable interdict against the commerce of england. it declared the british isles in a state of blockade, and all englishmen found in countries occupied by french troops were to be taken prisoners of war. it was issued by napoleon from the court of the prussian king, shortly after the battle of jena, november 21st, 1806.

[59]

berwick.—many bloody contests, were fought here between the english and scots. it surrendered to cromwell in 1648, and afterwards to general monk.

beyroot.—this place is celebrated for the total defeat of the egyptian army, by the allied english, austrian and turkish forces. the egyptians lost 7000 in killed, wounded and prisoners, and 20 cannons. fought october 10th, 1840.

bhurtpore.—india.—besieged by the british, january 3rd, 1805, and attacked five times up to march 21st, without success. the fortress was taken by general lake, after a desperate engagement with holkar, april 2nd, 1805. the defeat of holkar led to a treaty by which the rajah of bhurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs of rupees, and ceded the territories that had been granted to him by a former treaty, delivering up his son as a hostage, april 10th, 1805. this city was taken by storm, by lord combermere, january 18th, 1826.

bidassoa, passage of the.—the allied army, under lord wellington, effected the passage of this river, october 7th, 1813; and the illustrious british chieftain, having thus completed his glorious career in spain and portugal, pursued the enemy into france.

bilboa, battle of.—this place, which had been invested by the carlists under villareal, and was in considerable danger, was delivered by the defeat of the besiegers by espartero, assisted by british naval co-operation. espartero entered bilboa in triumph next day, christmas day, december 25th, 1836.

black hole of calcutta.—surajah doulah declared war against the english, from motives of personal resentment; and, levying a numerous army, laid siege to calcutta—one of the principal british forts in india—but which was not in a state of strength to defend itself against the attack even of barbarians. the fort was taken, having been deserted by the commander; and the garrison, to the number of 146 persons, were made prisoners.

they expected the usual treatment of prisoners of war, and were therefore the less vigorous in their defence; but they soon found what mercy was to be expected from a savage conqueror. they were all crowded together into a narrow prison, called the black hole, of about 18 feet square, and received air only by two small windows to the west, which[60] by no means afforded a sufficient circulation. it is terrible to reflect on the situation of these unfortunate men, shut up in this narrow place, in the burning climate of the east, and suffocating each other. their first efforts, upon perceiving the effects of their horrid confinement, were to break open the door of the prison; but, as it opened inwards, they soon found that impossible. they next endeavoured to excite the compassion or the avarice of the guard by offering him a large sum of money for his assistance in removing them into separate prisons; but with this he was not able to comply, as the viceroy was asleep, and no person dared to disturb him. they were now, therefore, left to die without hopes of relief; and the whole prison was filled with groans, shrieks, contest, and despair. this turbulence, however, soon after sunk into a calm still more hideous! their efforts of strength and courage were over, and an expiring languor succeeded. in the morning, june 20th, 1750, when the keepers came to visit the prison, all was horror, silence, and desolation. of 146 who had entered alive, 23 only survived, and of these the greatest part died of putrid fevers upon being set free.

blenheim, battle of.—fought between the english and confederates, commanded by the duke of marlborough, and the french and bavarians, under marshal tallard and the elector of bavaria, whom the duke totally defeated, with the loss of 27,000 men, in killed, and 13,000 prisoners—tallard being among the number of the latter; the electorate of bavaria became a prize of the conquerors. the nation testified its gratitude to the duke of marlborough by the gifts of the honour of woodstock and hundred of wotton, and erected for him one of the finest seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of blenheim. this great battle was fought on the 2nd of august, 1704.

bois-le-duc, battle of.—between the british and the french republican army, in which the former were defeated, september 14th, 1794. captured by the french, october 6th, following, and surrendered to the prussian army under bulow, 1814.

bologna.—taken by the french in 1796; by the austrians in 1799; again by the french, after marengo, in 1800; and restored to the pope, in 1815.

bombs.—invented at venlo in 1495; came into general use in 1634. the shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls and a lighted fuse to make[61] it explode before it reaches the enemy. a thirteen inch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs.

bombardment of sebastopol.—first attempt.—“at half-past six o’clock, on the morning of 17th october, a gun from the english batteries boomed ominously upon the ears of the russians in sebastopol. it was the signal for the commencement of the bombardment. it had been announced, on the previous evening, that the morrow was to initiate the combat; and already groups of expectant gazers thronged every spot which promised to afford a view of the warlike spectacle. for a moment after the signal-gun had despatched its messenger of death, a breathless expectation held the spectators in suspense; and then, from the whole line of attack, from the quarantine on the far left to the inkerman battery on the extreme right, a sheet of fire belched forth, and a volley of shot and shell was hurled upon the town. by this time the russian gunners were at their post, and bravely responded to the challenge. as far as the eye could reach, a dense volume of smoke hung suspended in the air; and when it lifted, another and yet another streak of flame poured from the black earthworks, and lit up the white churches and houses of the town. the earth literally shook with the concussion of the mighty conflict. distinct amid the roar, a sharp whizzing sound, swelling as it approached into a crashing rush, like a railway train at inexpressible speed, was heard, and a heavy blow upon the solid earthworks told where had fallen the ball of the renowned lancaster gun. in a couple of hours it was evident that the round tower, the most formidable of the russian works, was seriously damaged. but little impression, however, appeared to have been made on the mass of the enemy’s works. their fire was splendid, and it was abundantly apparent that the victory was not to be easily achieved. about ten o’clock, a shell fell into one of the french magazines, which exploded, killing and injuring more than fifty men. this was a serious blow; and from that time the guns of our allies were evidently feebly served, and inadequate to bear their part effectually. for two hours more the terrific cannonade continued, spreading destruction in the ranks alike of the russians and the allies; and then, at mid-day, the fleets approached the scene of action, and prepared to take their share in the dangers and glories of the day. the french was the first to take up their position. it had been arranged between the admirals, with the hearty concurrence of the land forces, that the french should engage the forts on the south of the harbour, while the english should attack[62] fort constantine, and the batteries on the north. a semicircular line, enclosing the mouth of the harbour, would represent the position occupied by the allied fleets. the vautour, a french frigate, had the honour of opening the fire, and very shortly afterwards the charlemagne, montebello, jean bart, and others, joined in the fray. the sight from the land side now was of the most stupendous character, and the roar deafening and incessant. enormous volleys from hundreds of guns of the largest size rolled with never-ceasing impetuosity; and the air was loaded with a dense smoke that hid from the anxious gazers the effects of the fire. occasionally a breeze lifted the murky canopy, and then the eye could catch the prospect beyond the frowning earthworks of shattered buildings, and not unfrequently a bright flame where the explosion of a shell had fired a roof, soon to be extinguished by the active enemy. then, in the far distance, rose the grim outlines of the massive forts, pointing seawards their deadly array of guns; and further yet, a line of noble vessels rapidly forming into order of attack, finished the picture. but such glimpses were but momentary. again the crimson volleys thundered forth, a light smoke poured from the sides of the french steamers, and the reply of the forts sent forth a vaporous veil, which, mingling with the smoke from the earthworks, once more enveloped in obscurity alike the attack and the defence.

it was arranged that the english sailing-vessels should be taken into position by the smaller steamers lashed to their sides. in this manner they drew up before the forts: the queen, britannia, trafalgar, vengeance, rodney, and bellerophon, with the vesuvius, furious, retribution, highflyer, spitfire, spiteful, and cyclops alongside, arrived at their appointed positions about an hour after the french had commenced firing. the ships in advance were the magnificent steamer the agamemnon, bearing the flag of sir edmund lyons, the brave second in command; the sanspareil, sampson, tribune, terrible, sphynx, and lynx, and the arrow gun-boat, accompanied by the sailing vessels, albion, london, and arethusa, towed by the firebrand, niger, and triton.

preceding this imposing force, a little steam-tug, the circassia, commanded by mr. ball, led the way, carefully sounding as it went, and marking out the position for the larger ships. sir edmund lyons had already settled the share he was determined to take in the day’s adventure, and had selected the enormous fort of constantine as the object of his special attention. the terrible and sampson, dashing through the storm of fire from the casemates of constantine, anchored opposite two[63] very mischievous little batteries, one of which the sailors named the wasp, from its power of annoyance in comparison with its size, and the other the telegraph, from its proximity to the signal station. in a few moments a vigorous shelling was opened upon these two batteries, which briskly replied. the agamemnon now opened fire, and never was a cannonade more briskly sustained, or exhibited greater precision of fire. sir edmund had anchored his vessel at the very edge of the shoal, which extended about 900 yards from the fort. at this distance the russian fire was most severe. for four hours the gallant crew bore the galling shower of missiles which cut through the rigging, pierced the hull, and sent many a brave fellow to his last account. the albion and london boldly came within range, but so deadly was the fire, that they soon withdrew, terribly crippled. the sanspareil admirably seconded the efforts of the agamemnon, and maintained a telling fire upon the fort. at length that too withdrew, and the dauntless sir edmund was left to bear the brunt of the concentrated fire of the russian guns. his ship was riddled with shot, the sails and rigging hanging in shreds, yet, with a bull-dog pertinacity, he clung to his opponent. despatching his lieutenant in an open boat, he summoned the bellerophon to his aid. his message was characteristically pithy: “tell them to come in; these forts will sink me, and i’m d——d if i leave this.” the bellerophon quickly responded; and throwing a volley into the big fort, passed on to where the wasp and telegraph forts were showering their missiles on the gallant agamemnon. the wasp was soon silenced by the vigorous shelling of the bellerophon; and sir edmund, freed from the annoyance it had caused, with unabated courage hurled his fire at his huge antagonist. the bellerophon, however, suffered fearfully. a shell from the russian batteries exploded in the fore part of the ship, and set fire to the lower deck. for a few moments it seemed as if unavoidable destruction was the fate of the gallant crew. the firing was suspended, and all hands rushed forward to endeavour to extinguish the flames. in this endeavour they were successful; but then a new mischance awaited them. the anchor had dragged on the bottom, and they were fast drifting towards the shoals beneath the forts, where they would have lain a helpless target for the russian guns. in this emergency, the spitfire, seeing the critical position of the larger vessel, dashed in, took her in tow, and safely brought her, though much damaged, out of the action.

the “saucy arethusa,” and her little companion in arms, the triton steamer, which, lashed to the larger vessel, had boldly entered into the[64] thick of the fight, bore a full share of the damage done that day. as they arrived within the range of the fire, the small steamer, which was then exposed, received a volley. then, hauling round, the broadside of the frigate was presented to the forts, and the triton was, to some degree, sheltered by the larger hull of her consort. the sailors from the steamer hastened on board the arethusa, to assist in manning her guns, and a glorious broadside was hurled at the russian fort. every shot vibrated through the triton, so great was the recoil of the frigate’s guns. broadside after broadside was gallantly delivered, and as promptly replied to by the cannon of the fort. down went the rigging of the arethusa, ropes hanging in tangled masses from her yards, and not unfrequent shots striking her hull. some passed beyond the frigate, and soon the triton’s gear aloft, and fallen gaffs, stays, and shrouds attested the severity of the enemy’s fire. two shots struck the paddle-wheel, and the commander and carpenter’s mate were wounded by a shell while examining the extent of damage done. at length the arethusa, nearly sinking, her decks covered with fallen rigging, her cockpit crowded with bleeding men, was compelled to relinquish the contest. the triton gallantly towed her out of range, but in the act, a raking fire of shells was poured upon the deck, killing and wounding all within range of their explosion. with twenty-two holes in her funnel, she contrived to tow the frigate to constantinople, to be docked for repairs, so extensive were her injuries.

the labrador steamer had a narrow escape from entire destruction. towards four o’clock a shell burst in the captain’s cabin, adjoining the powder magazine, and set fire to some ropes. a cry of “fire” was raised, the pumps set to work, and enormous quantities of water poured into the magazine. the fire was fortunately extinguished in time to save the vessel. she was, of course, compelled to withdraw from the attack, her powder being rendered useless.

admiral dundas’s flag-ship, the britannia, which fired from a longer range than the ones we have mentioned, received less damage, though she did not escape quite scatheless. the enemy’s shot ploughed up the water around, and occasionally a shell or round-shot fell upon the deck or crashed through the rigging. fortunately, however, only two men were wounded on board this ship.

the french vessels gallantly performed their part in the bombardment. our allies had adopted the same plan as the english, and lashed small steamers to the large sailing-vessels to bring them into action. two splendid steamers, the pluton and the charlemagne, proudly led the way in,[65] followed by the montebello, the jean bart, and the rest of the squadron. the enemy at fort alexander maintained an unflinching resistance, and inflicted severe punishment on the attacking vessels.

those who witnessed this tremendous bombardment, whether from land or sea, will probably never forget the spectacle. no imaginative description could approach the mingled sublimity and horror of the scene. a fleet of noble vessels, powerfully armed, poured forth sheets of flame from every port-hole on the attacking side; and the ponderous forts, from hundreds of embrasures, vomited a death-dealing reply. the thunder of artillery was deafening, and the sky darkened with the smoke. thousands of grim and fierce-looking men, their faces blackened with gunpowder and sweat, moved about the decks, and pointed the guns, amid the crash of falling spars and the groans of their wounded messmates. beyond the town, a sullen roar was heard, which might have been the echo of the sea-battle, but which the sailors well knew was the voice of the guns on land, many manned by seamen from the fleets, and responded to by a thousand of the enemy’s pieces. the awful boom of the guns grew in intensity as some fresh ship arrived on the scene, and contributed her broadside to the attack.

on the land side the combat was an equal one. volley replied to volley, and no symptoms appeared to induce the belief that either party was the stronger. suddenly, about four o’clock, a mighty explosion occurred in the russian lines, which, for a moment, seemed to quell and subdue the roar of the thundering cannon. the earth shook, and volumes of fire sprang upwards and cast a lurid glare on every object. the very artillery was paused, awe-struck by the catastrophe; and the spectators watched the result in breathless excitement. it seemed as if a subterranean fire had forced its way through the surface of the earth to annihilate the presumption of competing man. then the flame sank, the frightful shock was passed, and a pillar of dust and rubbish took the place of the mingled fire and smoke. the magazine in the centre of the redan had exploded, and for a brief space not a gun from that great work replied to our volleys. then the fire re-opened, and the russian gunners, nothing daunted, again hurled their shower of missiles against our works. shortly afterwards, a small powder-waggon, belonging to the english, was struck by a shell and exploded, fortunately injuring none.

at length twilight warned the combatants to cease. at about six o’clock the fleets drew off, and shortly afterwards the batteries suspended their fire. the naval attack, so far as damage to the enemy was concerned, was[66] a failure. many russian artillerymen were, doubtless, victims to the accuracy of our aim, and the undaunted pertinacity of our seamen. nothing, indeed, could exceed the brilliancy of the fire; and our gallant sailors of all ranks nobly maintained their reputation. but when the morrow came, the forts were found to be almost uninjured. not a gun the less frowned from their embrasures, not a stone seemed to be displaced. the blackened mouths of the casemates, and a multitude of scars, as it were, where the fierce storm of iron had splintered the surface of the granite, were all the evidence afforded of that desperate assault. the question between wood and granite had been fairly tried, and granite was the victor. the forts were essentially unhurt; but scarcely a ship had escaped without serious damage to masts, sails, and rigging. the albion and arethusa were compelled to proceed to constantinople to be docked; the rodney got fast upon the reef, and her masts were soon shattered by the russian shell and shot—the little steamer spiteful gallantly towing her off, with considerable damage to herself and loss of men; and the bellerophon had about fifteen shots in her hull, and her wheel knocked away. throughout the english fleet, 44 men were killed, and 266 wounded. the french loss was even greater. the turkish vessels, which occupied the centre of the line, were too far removed from the intensity of the action to sustain any serious injury to the ships or loss to the crew.”

bombardment of sebastopol.—final attempt.—“generals pelissier and simpson had arranged to commence the assault at noon on saturday. thu french were to commence by an attack on the malakoff tower. if they established themselves in that work, the english were to throw themselves upon the great redan, while simultaneous assaults were to be made on the right on the little redan, towards careening bay, and on the extreme left on the central bastion and flagstaff battery. general bosquet was entrusted with the direction of the malakoff attack, which was to be approached on the left flank by general macmahon, with a powerful corps of zouaves, chasseurs, and regiments of the line; the right attack on the little redan was to be led by general dulac, who had a strong body of chasseurs, and four line regiments, with another powerful force in reserve. general de la motterouge, with five regiments, was to assault the middle of the curtain connecting these two works. general de la salles conducted the assault on the extreme left. five regiments, composing levaillant’s division, were[67] in front of the central bastion and its lunettes; while to its right, general d’autemarre, with niel’s and breton’s brigades, were to penetrate in the track of levaillant’s division, and seize the mast bastion. the sardinians, anxious to share in the honors of the day, contributed a brigade under the orders of general cialdini, which was to attack in conjunction with d’autemare’s division. finally, ten regiments, under the command of generals bouat and pate, with some troops from kamiesch, were held in reserve, ready for immediate action. on each attack a competent number of sappers were provided with materials to form bridges, and handy tools; and the gunners had abundant implements for the spiking of guns; field artillery was also posted in commanding positions to render any assistance the fortunes of the day might render necessary.

the english storming party was comprised of detachments from the light and second divisions. general codrington, of the light division, assisted by general markham, commanding the second, had the direction of the assault. the first stormers, 1000 men, were selected in equal numbers from each division, colonels unett and windham leading. the highland brigade and guards were ordered up to the post as a reserve. general herbillon, commanding the french corps d’armée on the tchernaya, had made every preparation to meet any attack which might be made by the russian army of observation; but the enemy had experienced the prowess of the allies in the open field too bitterly again to attempt defeat.

early in the morning, squadrons of cavalry took position on the roads leading from balaklava and kadikoi to the camp, to prevent, stragglers and spectators from crowding to the front, and impeding the movements of the troops engaged in the assault. every precaution, too, was observed to prevent the enemy from having any intimation of the movements of the soldiers. parapets were heightened, and the regiments, french and english, moved up before daylight, with such promptness and secrecy that many even in the camp were unaware of the nature of the contemplated operations.

the plan of attack had originally included the co-operation of the fleet, but a brisk gale from the north-west forbade them to leave their anchorage; and except some french and english gunboats, which did good service in throwing shells and rockets into the forts, the sailors were unwillingly mere spectators of the fray.

precisely at twelve o’clock general macmahon’s division left the french trenches, which were within a few yards of the malakoff tower,[68] and advanced rapidly up the rugged and steep ascent. it proved that very great damage had been inflicted on the tower, and nearly all the guns dismounted. in a few minutes, with the loss of only one man, the french had leaped into the work, and the tricolor waved triumphantly on the summit of this great fort—the key to the town. the russians contested their ground with great bravery, renewing again and again their attacks, but every time repulsed with enormous loss. general bosquet was early wounded, and retired from the field.

the signal was now given by general pelissier for the commencement of the english assault on the redan; and the first stormers, led by major welsford of the 97th, and captain grove of the 90th, dashed from the trenches, followed by the remainder of the troops. the great work was distant about 250 yards, and the ground was so broken that it was impossible to preserve order. the enemy, who had been taken by surprise by the suddenness of the french attack upon the malakoff, were now thoroughly aroused and manned every gun. showers of grape and shell poured among our men as they struggled across the open space; general shirley, the brigadier of the light division, was compelled to retire, and hundreds were shot down. when the foremost men reached the redan, the ladders were too short to reach the breach; but spite of every obstacle our brave fellows climbed the broken walls, and poured into the salient angle of the work. major welsford was shot down as he entered the redan. colonel windham, with his brigade of the second division, followed quickly after, and in a few moments the triangular apex of the work was thronged with men. then a now obstacle presented itself. an inner work commanded the position, and a terrible array of embrasures frowned upon the assailers. for the first time english troops quailed before an enemy’s fire, and notwithstanding the daring courage of colonel windham and the other officers, retreated to such cover as they could obtain, maintaining an ineffective fire from their muskets. in vain colonel windham hurried from side to side, crossing with amazing courage the line of fire, and endeavored to form his men for another assault. the few who answered his appeal were swept away by the terrible fire of the enemy. for nearly two hours was the little band exposed to such a fearful risk; and from some unaccountable remissness no reinforcements were sent. three messengers were sent by colonel windham, but all were wounded in the attempt to reach general codrington. at length the dauntless colonel resolved to go himself; and passing across the open space, succeeded in obtaining the desired help. it was too late; the men inside[69] the work, unable longer to hold their position, were in full retreat; and the russians, pouring out of their cover, charged them with the bayonet, till the ditch was filled with the bodies of the english soldiers.

while the english attack was thus disastrous, the french assaults on the little redan and the central bastions were equally unsuccessful. the division of dulac and de la motterouge three times carried the works to which they were exposed, only to be repulsed by the heavy fire of the inner defences, and of the steamers, which ran up, and poured their broadsides into the ranks. general de la salles, on the extreme left, attacked with great energy the central bastion; but the intense fire to which his division was exposed, daunted his men, many of whom were fresh troops, unused to the stern realities of battle; and after a sanguinary struggle, he was forced to abandon the attempt. general pelissier having obtained possession of the malakoff, suspended farther attacks; and, at length, night closed in, leaving the armies in anxious expectation of the events of the morrow.

it was the intention of general simpson to renew the assault on the redan with the highlanders and guards on the next morning. when daylight broke, a few soldiers crept forward to seek for wounded comrades, and found the work was deserted! in a brief space, flames arose from every quarter of the town; and long lines of troops could be seen passing to the north forts. then tremendous explosions rent the air—the great forts on the south side were exploded; and, covered by a conflagration which effectually prevented pursuit, prince gortschakoff evacuated the town. a few hours later, and the ships in the harbor—the steamers excepted (and a few days afterwards they, too, shared the same fate)—burst into flames, or were scuttled, and sank slowly beneath the waters of the once crowded inlet of the sea, where had ridden the fleet with which russia hoped to rule the euxine, and from which had darted forth the murderers of sinopé.

in this final assault the english lost no fewer than 29 officers and 356 men killed, and 124 officers and 1762 men wounded; 1 officer and 175 men were missing; total of casualties, 2447. the french suffered a loss of 5 generals killed, 4 wounded, and 6 hurt; 24 superior officers killed, 20 wounded, and 2 missing; 116 subaltern officers killed, 224 wounded, and 8 missing; 1489 sub-officers and soldiers killed, 4259 wounded, and 1400 missing; total, 7551. the russians admit a loss on the last day of the assault of 2684 killed, 7263 wounded, and 1754 missing. between the battle of the tehernaya and the opening of the final bombardment, they lost 18,000 men.

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thus did sebastopol fall! the strongest fortress in the world, garrisoned by the most colossal military power, after a siege unexampled in modern history had succumbed to the efforts of the armies of the western powers. three great battles had been fought beneath its walls, and four bombardments of hitherto unknown fierceness had been directed against its bastions. the siege occupied very nearly twelve months; and more than 100,000 men must have perished by wounds and disease in and before its walls.

the besieging army had, in its different attacks, about 800 guns mounted, which fired more than 1,600,000 rounds, and the approaches, dug during 336 days, of open trenches through a rocky ground, to an extent of fifty-four english miles, were made under the constant fire of the place, and with incessant combats by day and night. during the siege we employed no less than 80,000 gabions, 60,000 fascines, and nearly 1,000,000 earth bags.

to the french unquestionably is due the honor of its capture; but who can forget the courage which the english exhibited, the fortitude they displayed, or the sufferings they endured? the first victories of that eventful year are claimed by british valour, and if, at the last, they failed, let us remember there are some tasks no ability can execute, some difficulties no skill can surmount, and some opposition no valour can subdue.”

borodino, or moskwa, battle of.—this battle is one of the most sanguinary in the annals of the world. it was fought september 7th, 1812, between the french and russians, commanded on the one side by napoleon and on the other by kutusoff, 240,000 men being engaged in the battle. each party claimed the victory, because the loss of the others was so immense, but it was rather in favour of napoleon, for the russians subsequently retreated, leaving moscow to its fate. among the principal persons of the russians who fell on this sanguinary field, may be mentioned prince bagration and general touczkoff. many russian generals were wounded. their loss amounted to the awful sum total of 15,000 men killed and more than 30,000 wounded. the french were supposed to have at least 10,000 men killed and 20,000 wounded; of these last few recovered. there were 8 french generals slain, the most distinguished of whom were montbrun and caulaimcourt, whose brother was the grand equerry to napoleon bonaparte.

borough bridge, battle of.—fought between the earls[71] of hertford and lancaster and edward ii. the king, at the head of 30,000 men, pressed lancaster so closely that he was taken, and executed, 1322.

boscobel.—here charles ii concealed himself in an oak tree after the fatal battle of worcester, september 3rd, 1651. the whole army of the prince was either killed or taken prisoners by cromwell, and charles ultimately escaped with great difficulty.

boston.—here the first resistance was made to the british authority by the american colonies, in 1773. besieged by the british next year, and two houses destroyed. in june 1775, the scene of a battle between the royal and the independent troops. finally evacuated by the king’s troops, april, 1776.—see bunker’s hill.

bosworth, battle of.—this battle was the thirteenth and last, between the houses of york and lancaster.—fought august 22nd, 1485. the crown of richard iii was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the battle was fought, and so eager was henry of richmond to be crowned, that he had the ceremony performed on the very spot, with that very crown. “richard advanced to meet his rival as far us the town of bosworth. henry, who had been joined by some of the stanleys, and whose army now counted six thousand men, had reached the neighbouring town of atherton. next morning, the 22nd of august, 1485, both armies were set in battle-array on the moor called redmore. richard was dismayed when he saw the stanleys opposed to him; but he soon displayed his wonted courage. observing part of his troops inactive and others wavering, he resolved to make one desperate effort and conquer or fall, and crying out “treason, treason!” and giving his horse the spurs, he rushed to where he saw richmond. he killed his standard-bearer and made a furious stroke at henry himself, which was warded off by sir william stanley, and richard was thrown from his horse and slain. lord stanley taking up the crown which he wore, placed it on the head of richmond, and shouts of “long live king henry!” were instantly raised all over the field. the loss on richard’s side in this decisive battle was three hundred, that on henry’s only one hundred men. the body of richard was stripped, and being thrown across a horse, was conveyed to leicester and there interred, and many years after his coffin could be seen used as a horse-trough.” “sic transit gloria mundi.”

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boulogne.—france.—taken by the british in 1542, restored 1550—attacked by lord nelson, who disabled ten vessels and sunk five, august 3rd, 1801. in another attempt he was repulsed with great loss, august 18th, following. the flotilla of boulogne consisted of 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, with 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors. napoleon attempted by it to invade england, but could not succeed, and at last gave up the idea.

boxtel, battle of.—fought september 17th, 1794, between the british and allied army, commanded by the duke of york, and the army of the french republic. the latter attacked the allies and obtained the victory after an obstinate engagement, taking 2000 prisoners and 8 pieces of cannon, and the duke retreated across the meuse.

boyne, battle of the.—fought july 1st, 1689, between the prince of orange, afterwards william iii of england, and james ii of england. james was defeated. “early next morning, the 1st of july, 1689, the english prepared to pass the river in three divisions. the right forced the passage at the ford of slane; the centre led by the old warrior duke schomberg, passed opposite the irish camp; it was vigorously opposed, but it finally forced the irish to fall back to the village of donóre, where james stood viewing the battle. william, meantime, had passed at the head of the third division, composed of cavalry, and driven off the enemy’s horse. the french general lausun immediately urged james to set out with all speed for dublin, lest he should be surrounded. he forthwith quitted the field; the irish army poured through the pass of duleék and formed at the other side, and then retreated in good order. its loss had been 1500 men, that of the victors was about 500, among whom were duke schomberg, and walker, the brave governor of derry.”

brechin.—scotland.—edward iii besieged it in 1333. a battle was fought here between the forces of the earls of huntly and crawford. the latter defeated in 1452.

breda.—taken by prince maurice in 1590. by the spaniards in 1625. by the dutch in 1637. by the french 1793, and again by the dutch in the same year.

brest.—besieged by julius c?sar b.c. 54. possessed by the english, a.d. 1378. given up 1391. lord berkely and a british[73] force repulsed here, with terrible loss, in 1694. here was the french fleet rendezvous, which was afterwards defeated by lord howe, 1st june, 1794.

bretigny, peace of.—between france and england, ending in the release of king john, who was then a prisoner in london, may 8th, 1360.

briar’s creek, battle of.—one of the battles between the revolted americans and the british, in 1779. the former, under general ashe, 2000 strong, were totally defeated by the english, under general prevost, march 16th, 1779. again, 3rd may following, another defeat happened to the americans.

brandywine, battle of.—fought between the british royalist forces and the revolted americans, in which the latter (after a fight, sometimes of doubtful result, and which continued the entire day) were defeated with great loss, and philadelphia fell into the possession of the victors, september 11th, 1777.

breslau, battle of.—between the austrians and prussians, the latter under prince bevern, who was defeated, but the engagement was most bloody on both sides; fought november 22nd, 1757. breslau was taken, but was regained the same year. this city was besieged by the french and surrendered to them january 5th, 1807, and again in 1813.

brienne, battle of.—fought february 1st and 2nd, 1814, between the allied armies of russia and prussia and the french. the allies were defeated with great loss; this was one of the last battles in which the french achieved victory previous to the fall of napoleon.

bridge of boats of xerxes.—this bridge was connected from shore to shore in the following manner: they connected vessels of different kinds, some long vessels of fifty oars, others three banked galleys, to the number of 360 on the side of the euxine sea, and thirteen on that of the hellespont. when these vessels were firmly fixed together they were secured by anchors of great length on the upper side, because of the winds which set in from the euxine; on the lower toward the ?gean sea, on account of the south and south-east winds. they left openings in three places, sufficient to afford a passage for light vessels which might[74] have occasion to sail into the euxine or from it—having performed this they extended cables from the shore stretching them on large capstans of wood. then they sawed out rafters of wood making their length equal to that space required for the bridge—these they laid in order across the extended cables and then bound all fast together. then they placed unwrought wood regularly upon the rafters; over all they threw earth, and fenced both sides in, that the horses and other animals might not be frightened by looking down into the sea.

brigade.—a party or division of troops or soldiers, whether cavalry or infantry—regular, volunteer or militia, commanded by a brigadier. a brigade of artillery consists of six pieces, with usually about 140 men; a brigade of sappers consists of eight men.

brigadier.—a general officer who commands a brigade, whether of horse or foot, and ranks next to a major-general—commonly called a brigadier-general.

brussels.—bombarded by marshal villeroy, in 1695—taken by the french 1746. again by dumouriez, in 1792; near it is the celebrated field of waterloo.

bucharest, treaty of.—a treaty of peace between russia and turkey, signed may 28th, 1812.

buda.—once called the key of christendom. it was taken by soleyman ii at the memorable battle of mohatz, when the hungarian king louis was killed, and 200,000 of his subjects carried away as slaves, 1526. buda was sacked a second time, and hungary annexed to the ottoman umpire, 1540. retaken by the imperialists, and the mohammedans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1626.

buenos ayres, british descents upon.—a british fleet and army, under sir home popham and general beresford, took the city, with slight resistance, in 1806, but it was retaken august 12th, after six weeks’ possession. monte-video was taken by storm by sir samuel auchmuty, february 3rd, 1807, but evacuated july 7th following. the british suffered a dreadful repulse here in an expedition of 8000 men, under general whitelock (who was disgraced) july 6th, 1807. on entering the town they were attacked by a superior force with musketry and grape from every quarter, and perished in great numbers, but at last they were allowed to re-embark in their vessels.

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bull run.—this battle was fought between the northern states of america and the confederate states of the south, july 21st, 1861. the union army was signally defeated, and fell back on washington in confusion. their loss amounted to 481 killed, 1011 wounded, and 700 prisoners. the rebel or southern loss was 269 killed and 1483 wounded.

bunker’s hill, battle of.—fought between the english and her revolted colonists, june 16th, 1775. on the evening of that day, 1000 men, under the command of colonel prescott, of massachusetts, colonel stark, from new-hampshire, and captain knowlton, from connecticut, were despatched on this service. they were conducted, by mistake, to breed’s hill, which was nearer to the water and to boston, than bunker’s. at twelve o’clock they began to throw up entrenchments, and by dawn of day had completed a redoubt eight rods square. as soon as they were discovered, they were fired upon from a ship of war and several floating batteries lying near, and from a fortification in boston opposite the redoubt. the americans, nevertheless, encouraged by general putnam, who often visited them on the hill, continued to labor until they had finished a slight breastwork extending from the redoubt eastward to the water. and in the morning they received a reinforcement of 500 men.

the temerity of the provincials astonished and incensed general gage, and he determined to drive them immediately from their position. about noon, a body of 3000 regulars, commanded by general howe, left boston in boats, and landed in charlestown, at the extreme point of the peninsula. generals clinton and burgoyne took their station on an eminence in boston, commanding a distinct view of the hill. the spires of the churches, the roofs of the houses, and all the heights in the neighborhood, were covered with people, waiting, in dreadful anxiety, to witness the approaching battle.

the regulars forming at the place of landing, marched slowly up the hill, halting frequently to allow time to the artillery to demolish the works. while advancing, the village of charlestown, containing about 400 houses, was set on fire by order of general gage. the flames ascended to a lofty height, presenting a sublime and magnificent spectacle. the americans reserved their fire until the british were within 10 rods of the redoubt; then taking a steady aim, they began a furious discharge. entire ranks of the assailants fell. the enemy halted and returned the fire; but that from the redoubt continuing incessant and doing great[76] execution, they retreated in haste and disorder down the hill, some even taking refuge in their boats.

the officers were seen running hither and thither, collecting, arranging and addressing their men, who were at length induced again to ascend the hill. the americans now reserved their fire until the enemy had approached even nearer than before, when a tremendous volley was at once poured upon them. terrified by the carnage around them, they again retreated with precipitation, and such was the panic, that general howe was left almost alone on the hillside, his troops having deserted him, and nearly every officer around him being killed.

at this moment, general clinton, who had observed from boston the progress of the battle, feeling that british honor was at stake, hastened with a reinforcement to the assistance of his countrymen. by his exertions, the troops were a third time rallied, and were compelled by the officers, who marched behind them with drawn swords, to advance again towards the americans. the fire from the ships and batteries was redoubled, and a few pieces of cannon had been so placed as to rake the interior of the breastwork from end to end.

the provincials, having expended their ammunition, awaited in silence the approach of the regulars. the latter entered the redoubt. the former, having no bayonets, defended themselves, for a short time, with the butt-end of their muskets. from this unequal contest they were soon compelled to retire. as they retreated over charleston neck, the fire from the floating batteries was incessant; but a few only were killed. the enemy had sustained too much injury to think of pursuit.

in this desperate and bloody conflict, the royal forces consisted, as has been stated, of 3000 men, and the provincials of 1500. of the former, 1054 were killed and wounded; of the latter 453. this disparity of loss, the steadiness and bravery displayed by their recent undisciplined levies, occasioned among the americans the highest exultation, and, in their view, more than counterbalanced the loss of position.

burgos, siege of.—lord wellington entered burgos after the battle of salamanca (fought july 22nd, 1812), on september 19th. the castle was besieged by the british and allies, and several attempts were made to carry it by assault, but the siege was abandoned, october 21st, the same year; the castle and fortifications were blown up by the french, june 12th, 1813.

burmese war.—the first dispute with the burmese took place[77] in 1795, but it was amicably settled by general erskine. hostilities were commenced in 1824, when the british took rangoon. after some time peace was declared, february 24th, 1826, when the british received arracan as a compensation. a naval force arrived before rangoon, october 29th, 1851, and after the non compliance of certain british demands by the viceroy, war was declared. on the 5th april, 1852, martaban was stormed by the british indian army, and on the 14th of the same month rangoon itself fell into their hands. then followed the storming of bassein, may 19th, 1852, and the capture of pegu, june 4th, 1852. on the 28th december following, pegu was annexed to the indian government by a proclamation of the governor-general.

burlington heights, battle of.—between the british and the united states’ forces—an obstinate and memorable engagement, contested with great valour on both sides. the americans were routed, and the british carried the heights, june 6th, 1813.

busaco or buzaco, battle of.—this sanguinary engagement was fought, september 27th, 1810, between the british, under lord wellington, and the french army, commanded by massena. the latter was repulsed with great slaughter, losing one general, and 1000 men killed, two generals and about 3000 men wounded, and several hundred prisoners; the loss of the british and their allies did not exceed 1300 in the whole. the british subsequently retreated to the lines of torres vedras, which were too strong for massena to attempt to force, and the two armies remained in sight of each other to the end of the year.