the guiding hand
“i should like to live fifty years to see the result of the seed i have planted,” said porfirio diaz a number of years ago. it is not within the limit of human possibility that such a boon could be granted this amiable “republican despot” but he had lived long enough to see the good results of the policies established by him for the upbuilding of his country.
succeeding to a government that had been in the throes of revolution ever since the patriot-priest hidalgo first proclaimed independence on the 16th of september, 1810, president diaz at once restored peace to the country that has lasted for thirty years. inheriting a bankrupt treasury from his predecessors, and a large foreign debt that had on several occasions brought about foreign intervention, he succeeded in placing the finances of the country in a prosperous condition and has accomplished more for mexico than had been done in three[370] centuries of spanish rule. he organized the army along modern lines and established the rurales which insured the safety of life and property. railroads under the wise system of encouragement inaugurated by him have increased from three hundred and fifty miles to thirteen thousand five hundred miles; telegraph lines from four thousand five hundred miles to thirty-five thousand miles; the number of post-offices now number two thousand three hundred and fifty instead of seven hundred and twenty as it was in 1876. imports and exports have doubled several times, and the annual balance sheet now shows a comfortable surplus instead of a deficit as in former days. all this has been done and old obligations met in spite of the serious loss in exchange due to the depreciation in silver, and the fact that the heavy foreign obligations had to be met in gold purchased with silver at a low and constantly varying valuation.
a company of rurales
the life of porfirio diaz is fascinating. it savours of the days of knighthood and romance. we are reminded of those heroes of old around whom time has cast a glamour, for he has had adventures as exciting, escapes as miraculous and a life seemingly as charmed as any hero created by the masters of romance, and his life may well be termed “stranger than fiction.”[371] one is naturally inclined to be rather eulogistic in his treatment of such a character.
the present president of mexico was born in the city of oaxaca in an unimposing house on the street of la soledad, that is now used as a sugar factory, on the 15th of september, 1830, a day already celebrated in mexican annals. his father, captain josé faustini diaz, was of spanish descent and followed the occupation of innkeeper, but died when porfirio was only three years of age. his maternal grandmother was a mixteca indian. the church and law were the only two occupations open to an ambitious youth in those days, and this young lad was intended for the former. he chose the law much to the disgust of his relatives but never followed that calling. the fighting blood in him impelled him to the sanguinary conflicts on the field rather than the bloodless battles in the courts between contending counsel.
about this time the war with the united states broke out and the future president, a youth of seventeen, volunteered but saw no fighting, although he thus early in life showed his genius for organization by forming his fellow-students of the academy into a battalion for the defence of his home city. benito juarez, afterwards president, was attracted by this[372] youth and invited him to read law in his office, which offer was accepted. thus was begun an association between two men who were destined in later years to occupy such a prominent place in mexican history. through the influence of juarez, the younger man was made assistant librarian and by the aid of the salary attached to this position, and money earned as tutor, he completed his course, and received his law degree.
politics and war seem to have divided the attention of diaz from the very first with a preference for the latter in early life. diaz was a military genius. i can say this in all seriousness. although he never commanded a large army yet, under his hands, the rawest recruits soon became valuable troops. he is possessed of a personal magnetism and the quality of simpatica, (which can not be translated into english) that draws people to him and, when once aroused, they become his enthusiastic partisans. in a land of lethargy and procrastination his movements were quick and decisive, and he soon became noted for night marches and early morning attacks. he never was overcome except by superior forces, and then only after his stores and ammunition were exhausted. even when beaten and his army captured or[373] separated, a few days of freedom would again place him at the head of a respectable force ready to take aggressive stand against the enemy. had he been in command of a hundred thousand men, he would have met the situation with the same tact and ability.
the first of the many political offices held by diaz was that of jefe politico, or mayor, of the little indian town of ixtlan when only twenty-five years of age. here he devoted his time to organizing the indians into a company of militia, and this little body of soldiers formed a nucleus that proved a great help to him in the troublous times which followed. later he was made jefe of tehuantepec where he showed great administrative ability. soon afterward, in 1861, he was elected a deputy to congress from oaxaca, but at that time would not sacrifice the excitement of war for the more prosaic duties of law-making.
captain diaz had seen his first military service in the revolts against the notorious santa anna, of alamo fame. he had the courage to sign a remonstrance against this usurper, and was compelled to fly for his life. later, in the campaigns against santa anna, he was so successful that he had become almost a hero in the eyes of his fellow oaxacans. at the beginning[374] of the french invasion, the rank of general of a brigade had been conferred upon him at the early age of thirty-two years, and he was assigned to the defense of puebla under general zaragoza. it was due to his tactics more than anything else that the way was paved for the great victory of cinco de mayo, 1862, when an inferior force of mexicans defeated a numerically larger army of veteran french troops. it was nearly a year later before the armies of the allied french and austrians, greatly augmented by new arrivals, were able to capture puebla after a two months’ siege, the ammunition of the mexicans had been exhausted. general diaz refusal to give parol and was made prisoner but escaped after a short confinement.
because of the approach of the invading armies toward the capital, president juarez had removed the seat of government to san luis potosi. he made general diaz commander-in-chief of the armies south of the valley of mexico. returning to his favourite haunts in oaxaca, he soon gathered together an army and some money and marched forth on the offensive. by this time general diaz had become such a formidable opponent that general bazaine himself, later of european fame, leader of the french forces, took the field against this young[375] leader with the determination to crush him. he finally shut him up in oaxaca and captured that city in 1865. the french general had carefully laid his plans for this campaign, having transported a large number of guns, and was at the head of an army, diaz claims, of sixteen thousand. the fame of this general and his large force created a panic among the troops of diaz and his little army had dwindled to a few hundred. general diaz was captured and taken to puebla by his captors where he was prisoner for more than seven months in a former house of the jesuits in that city. his escape is celebrated in mexican annals, and his own account is as follows, although i have greatly abbreviated it:—
“after taps for silence had been sounded for the night, i went to a room which was roofless and which on that account was used as a yard. i had with me three ropes, wrapped up in canvas, and i threw them onto the roof. i also had another rope, and i succeeded in throwing it around a projecting stone spout which seemed to be sufficiently firm. when i had satisfied myself that the support was sufficient, i climbed up by the rope to the roof. my progress along the roof to the corner of san roque street, where i had made up my mind to descend, was[376] attended with much danger, for on the roof of the church a detachment and sentries were stationed to keep watch. gliding on all-fours i made towards the point where i was to let myself down. i often had to stop to feel my way, for the roof was strewn with many fragments of glass which sounded when touched. moreover, there were frequent flashes of lightning, which exposed me to being discovered.
“i finally reached the wall of the church. in order to arrive at the corner of the street of san roque it was necessary to pass through a portion of the edifice which was occupied by the priest in charge of the church, and i was aware that shortly before he had denounced to the court martial some political prisoners who had bored a hole through their place of confinement into his dwelling, and as a consequence they had been shot the next day.
“i let myself down into an upper yard of the priest’s house at the moment when a young man who also lived there had come in from the street; he had probably been to the theatre, for he was in gay humour and was humming an air from an operetta. he did not see me as he passed, and i remained quiet until he had entered his room. when i considered that sufficient time had elapsed for him to get into bed, and perhaps to[377] fall asleep, i climbed to the roof of the convent on the opposite side to that by which i had descended and pushed forward to the corner of the street of san roque, and i arrived there at last. there is at the corner, in a niche, a statue of st. vincent ferrer which i proposed using to fix the rope by which i was to descend. the saint wobbled when touched, but probably there was inside the statue an iron spike to hold it. in any case, in order to be more sure, i adjusted the rope around the pedestal of the statue which seemed to be quite firm. i resolved to alight in a vacant lot which adjoined and which was only fenced in. i did not know that there was a drove of hogs in this yard. as when i began the descent i turned somewhat with my rope, my back struck against the wall, and the impact caused a poniard which i carried at my waist to fall from its sheath among the hogs, probably wounding one of them, for they set up a grunting which grew louder as they saw me descending among them. i had to wait for some time for them to quiet down. i then climbed to the top of the partition separating the lot from the street, but i had at once to bob down again for just at that moment a gendarme was passing on his round, seeing if[378] the doors were well fastened. when he had retired i sprang into the street.”
in a few days he had rallied around him a few faithful followers and captured the small garrison of tehuitzingo. from this time his career was a succession of victories until the capture and execution of maximilian. these victories and the firm stand of the united states government re-established republican supremacy. early in 1867 preparations were made to regain puebla which city was defended by a force of several thousand french troops. on april 2nd he made a feint with a few hundred men on the convent of “el carmen” which caused the army of the defenders to be concentrated there. then a concerted attack followed from several points, and the soldiers of diaz drove back the hardened troops of the third napoleon, and the flag of liberty waved over the city in the early dawn. he followed up the fleeing foreigners and a series of engagements followed in which diaz was victorious. the war was ended by the capture of the city of mexico after a siege of several assaults.
from boyhood until the close of the empire in 1867, general diaz had worked against great odds. he was by this time easily the most popular man in mexico. one party at the general[379] elections of that year nominated him for president, but he refused to run against his old friend and patron, president juarez. he even refused an office and resigned his commission in the army. in search of rest he retired to the place of his birth, and his trip from the capital was a triumphal journey. the citizens of oaxaca received him with open arms, and presented him with the estate of la noria near that city. hither he went with the wife whom he had married by proxy during the war and spent a few years in comparative quiet. in 1871 another presidential election was held. juarez, who had failed both mentally and physically, had advocated a number of unpopular measures, but was determined to have himself re?lected to office. diaz was also a candidate. when juarez was declared elected, the “porfiristas” declared a revolution with the slogan “less government and more liberty.” however juarez died in a few months and the executive power temporarily fell upon the president of the supreme court, lerdo de tejada, who was afterwards elected to that office to serve the unexpired term.
general diaz refused reconciliation with this government, and, fearing trouble before the next presidential election, for lerdo was an[380] active candidate, he sold his estate and left for the united states after a “pronunciamento,” called the “plan of tuxtepec,” had been issued to which he gave his allegiance, if he was not the author of it. this “plan” declared a president ineligible to succeed himself. by the time the revolution was well underway in several states, general diaz had crossed the rio grande at brownsville, texas, with forty followers. these forty men increased to four hundred in a few days and they captured matamoros on april 2nd, 1876.
learning that a large force had been sent after him, general diaz decided to return south. he went to new orleans and took a steamer from there, called the city of habana, sailing for vera cruz, and passed himself off as a cuban doctor. he was not suspected until some of the troops he had captured at matamoros a few weeks before got on board the ship at tampico. they immediately made arrangements to secure him on arriving at vera cruz. although the ship was four miles from land, diaz jumped overboard and attempted to swim ashore. he was picked up after nightfall in an exhausted condition, and taken on board the ship again. however the purser was won to his cause and concealed him in a wardrobe, where he remained[381] for several days on a diet of ship’s biscuit and water. the purser, as a matter of policy and in order to disarm all suspicion, invited the lerdist officers into his cabin, where they would spend hours in playing at cards. oftentimes the chair of the one sitting in front of the wardrobe would be tilted back against the door behind which was the man they would have given almost anything to catch. from his cramped position general diaz was in torment. he could not stand upright, nor was he able to sit down. when the city of habana arrived at vera cruz the chief of the coast guard service, who was the fugitive’s friend, managed to smuggle in to him a dilapidated sailor’s suit and a very old pair of boots. at the same time the chief sent word that a rowboat, in charge of a man he would recognize by certain signals, would come alongside for him. when the ship began to unload bales of cotton into barges, this boat appeared among them, and the noted prisoner made his escape to land.
after several exciting adventures on the way, general diaz again appeared at oaxaca among his friends and ardent supporters. his popularity and prestige in oaxaca have always been remarkable. never did he appeal to his neighbours and friends of that state in vain. it was[382] not long until he was at the head of an army of four thousand “porfiristas”—men who would follow their leader to the death if need be, and many of whom had fought with him at puebla and elsewhere. the news of the escape of diaz brought gloom to the “lerdistas.” lerdo immediately marched his army southward. the two armies met on the 16th of november, 1876, at tecoac, and for a few hours the battle waged hotly and bitterly. the lerdist army, which was considerably larger, began the engagement with every prospect of success. at the last moment diaz led a charge in person which routed the enemy, and the result was a complete triumph for the “porfiristas.”
flushed with victory, and determined to press his advantage to the utmost, general diaz promptly proceeded toward the capital with his augmented army. panic seized lerdo and his followers. he took all the public funds available, and, with his ministers, fled to acapulco. upon arriving there he embarked for san francisco, and made no further effort to impede the progress of the diaz forces. iglesias, president of the supreme court, upon whom the succession legally fell upon the death or resignation of the president, established[383] headquarters at guanajuato and issued a proclamation assuming the office of chief executive. diaz at once marched upon puebla, which he entered without opposition. city after city sent representatives announcing their adherence to his cause. the onward march was continued without a halt until guadalupe, about three miles from the capital, was reached. here he halted for a day in order to get his forces into presentable condition to make a triumphal entry into the historic capital.
it was on the 24th of november, 1876, that general diaz made his memorable march into the city of mexico. riding at the head of an army of several thousand armed men he made a triumphal entry into that ancient capital, while thousands gathered along the route to see this new adventurer—as he was styled by his enemies. the plaza was packed with the populace. this son of an innkeeper, this man with the blood of the indian in his veins, this hero of many battles passed through the portal of the national palace and became master of mexico. from there he issued a proclamation assuming the provisional presidency of the republic, until an election could take place in regular form and a constitutional ruler should be chosen. this was held in december.[384] with the government in his hands the result of that election was never in doubt. after a three months’ campaign his authority was recognized over the entire republic. since that time porfirio diaz occupied that high office continuously, except for an interval of four years from 1880 to 1884, when manuel gonzalez held that title, until may 25th, 1911, when he resigned. diaz himself became a victim of the “tuxtepec plan,” forbidding two consecutive terms, and gracefully retired at the end of his first term, although urged by a large following to remain at the head of the government. for the first time in mexican history was seen the spectacle of one president voluntarily relinquishing the sceptre to his successor, and returning to private life without an effort to retain himself in power. gonzalez entered the office one of the most popular men in mexico, having been elected by an almost unanimous vote. four years later he left it under a cloud of almost universal execration and contempt. during the four years of gonzalez’s administration diaz was not idle, but served in the cabinet, as governor of oaxaca and senator from morelas. isolated disturbances have arisen at times, but no formidable opposition arose against him until 1910. this revolution[385] is treated in the succeeding chapter. the law limiting the succession was revoked during his second term, and the length of office was subsequently extended to six years. at the various elections the reported vote was almost unanimous for diaz. on december 1st, 1910, he was inaugurated president for the seventh consecutive term, or eighth term in all.
immediately upon first assuming the executive office after the flight of lerdo, diaz issued a statement in which he set forth in clear terms his intention to restore constitutional order and institute reforms. he invited all factions and cliques to co?perate with him. this soon won the regard of the intelligent and honest partisans of all factions, and he early showed his impartiality by selecting his advisers irrespective of party. it was not long until most of the lerdistas and juaristas were won to his cause. by this skilful handling of the leaders, he secured the good will of congress in furthering his plans for reforms, and in organizing the finances on a better basis. new treaties were negotiated with foreign nations and able diplomatic representatives sent abroad.
it has been said that the best peacemakers are those who have made war. those who detest powder most are generally those who[386] have smelled it on the field of battle. to them—more than all others—are known the horrors and hardships of war, and what it entails upon the innocent and guilty alike. even though a battle-scared hero may have profited by the advantages gained by military success, the tragedy of empty homes and nameless graves is known to and acknowledged by him. general sherman said: “the main thing is to deal as hard blows at the enemy’s forces as possible, and then cause so much suffering to the inhabitants that they will long for peace.” a similar belief animated president diaz. he himself has said in explaining his actions in suppressing brigandage: “sometimes we were harsh to the point of cruelty. but it was all necessary to the life and progress of the nation. if there was cruelty, the results have justified it. it was better that a little blood be shed that much blood be saved. the blood that was shed was bad blood; the blood that was saved was good blood.” almost before they knew what was happening the professional malcontents found themselves in the grip of this masterful new leader. it was to this quality of firmness that he owed his pronounced success during the first years of his presidency.
several scattered uprisings occurred during[387] the first term, most of them being fostered by the “lerdistas.” lerdo issued a proclamation on the 24th of february, 1877, from new york, claiming to be the constitutional president, and, a few months later, iglesias did the same thing from new orleans. neither of these manifestos were looked upon seriously by the mexicans, but they were in a great measure responsible for the tardy recognition of the diaz government by the united states and other foreign powers. one revolt is worthy of mention because of its novelty. a part of the crew of the armed vessel trinidad mutinied during the absence of the commander at vera cruz. they headed for a campeche port, where they seized several thousand dollars of public funds. while the leaders of the mutiny were ashore enjoying the money, a counter mutiny was led by the boatswain, who took the ship back to vera cruz and returned it to the government.
judging this man at a distance, we, who live in a country where even a third term is a “bogie,” are inclined to smile at these successive elections to the presidency, and dismiss the matter with the charge of “dictator” and “republican despot,” with all the odium that those terms imply. president diaz was both.[388] but, above all, he was, i believe, a true patriot. whatever may have been his original motives in seeking this high office his later actions prove the statement. responsibility will often develop a man, and that may have been true with diaz. in securing the control by driving out lerdo, and assuming the provisional presidency over iglesias, who was the official designated by the constitution in case of a vacancy, he only did what many had done before. whether his retention of the office for so long was a good or bad thing for the country, the historian of the future will be a better judge.
the accomplishments of diaz were many. it would require a long enumeration to give them in detail. the very fact that he succeeded to a government which had seen fifty-four different rulers, including two emperors and a number of avowed dictators, in the fifty-five years preceding his own accession, and ruled the country for more than a generation, is in itself sufficient to stamp him as an extraordinary man. those were indeed troublous times in mexico while we were celebrating the centennial of our independence. the strong spirit of juarez had been broken by the long strain from 1857 to 1872, during which time he was nominally president. his successor[389] was a weak, ambitious man who accomplished little. disorder everywhere, the country overrun with bandits and a worse than empty treasury were the conditions when diaz grasped the reins. it was not until nearly two years afterward that his government was formally recognized by the united states. few men could have steered the country through such a state of affairs so successfully. he did it without repudiating any valid claims. he established credit by paying foreign obligations rather than the salaries of government employees. he surrounded himself with an able cabinet, and started the machinery of government in a business-like way.
i do not subscribe to the doctrine of shakespeare that all the world is a stage, and that each person is a player, for that would take away sincerity. porfirio diaz has been accused of only acting a part. he could not always be acting, for his course was too consistent under many and diverse circumstances. as a young man he refused pay for military services because the government was so poor. he declined promotion over the heads of men older in the service for fear of jealousies. he refused remuneration after the close of the war of intervention, although not a rich man at that[390] time. he turned a deaf ear to the emissaries of maximilian, who wanted to place him in command of the mexican army when that ruler abdicated, which would practically have made him president. he was a humane adversary, as is shown by his treatment of prisoners of war. he disregarded ceremony as much as is possible in a latin country. he declined to live in the national palace, but resided in a private house the most of the time, and at chapultepec a part of the year.
it is not to be wondered at that the man who rules with a strong arm will make bitter enemies as well as warm partisans. likewise such a policy will always have its defamers as well as its supporters. opinion is still divided upon napoleon, and whether his high-handed methods wrought more good than evil. hence it is that some can see nothing in diaz but a tyrant, an enslaver of his people, and a man unfit for even life itself. they forget that peonage was not originated by diaz, but was inherited from the spaniards and supported by the voters of the country. they do not look into the conditions faced by diaz when he first became president, nor the bloody history of the republic before that time. i believe that diaz would have been permitted to serve his[391] term had it not been for his efforts to control the vice-presidency, and the fact that his choice fell upon a man who was very unpopular. knowing that at his age the president’s span of life was uncertain, the politicians wanted to control this office because of the succession. for this reason discontent and jealousies had been growing for several years. diaz had publicly declared his intention not to seek another term, so that those ambitious for that office took him at his word and began their wire-pulling. this was in february, 1908. then, in the spring of 1910, he announced that yielding to importunity he would accept another term. this was the one great mistake in his political career. had diaz adhered to his previous declaration, he would have retired from the office of chief executive full of honours. as it is he resigned under pressure, and left the city of mexico unannounced and accompanied only by his family and a few friends. he boarded a steamer in the harbour of vera cruz and sailed for spain, where he has quietly resided since that time.
the personality of this dictator-president, who has filled such an important place in the world’s history, is most interesting. as i sat in the great salon of the national palace,[392] awaiting the appearance of president diaz, i spent the intervening fifteen or twenty minutes in examining the room. on the high walls were pictures of general washington, the father of liberty in the whole of the two americas; of the patriot-priest hidalgo, who first raised the standard of revolt in mexico, and of diaz himself. then diaz appeared—a man tall for a mexican, solidly built, with white closely cropped hair and white moustache. he approached with an elastic, graceful and springy step entirely belying his almost eighty years. the indian blood could easily be traced in his complexion and features. the most striking feature of this man is his eyes, which seem to look into the very soul of all he meets. it is probably this intuitive perception that has been one of the key-notes of his success. he has always been a democratic sort of man and easy of approach, and impresses his sincerity on all those who talk with him. diaz was always a tireless worker and methodical in his habits. he is abstemious, and it is probably due to this characteristic and his methodical habits, that at eighty years of age he remained as active and energetic as the average man twenty years younger. he kept in touch with the most remote parts of the republic,[393] even to the most distant village. his advisers were often surprised at the vast knowledge he displayed in all matters of state. the private life of diaz has always been above reproach. he has been twice married. his first wife was delfina ortega y reyes, who died in 1880 before sharing in the full greatness of her husband, leaving a son and two daughters, all of whom are still living. three years later he was married to a daughter of romero rubio, whose full name is se?ora do?a carmen romero rubio de diaz. she is a woman who by her sweetness of character, kindly disposition and charities won a warm place in the affections of the mexican people.
the end of the political career of diaz is not without a touch of pathos, as well as an element of personal dignity. broken in health, and deserted by many of his former friends, he resigned the office of president in the following letter addressed to congress:—
“se?ores: the mexican people, who have generously covered me with honours, who proclaimed me as their leader during the international war, who patriotically assisted me in all works undertaken to develop industry and the commerce of the republic, to establish its[394] credit, gain for it the respect of the world and obtain for it an honourable position in the concert of the nations; that same people has revolted in armed military bands, stating that my presence in the exercise of the supreme executive power was the cause of this insurrection.
“i do not know of any facts imputable to me which could have caused this social phenomenon; but acknowledging as possible, though not admitting, that i may be unwittingly culpable, such a possibility makes me the least able to reason out and decide my own culpability.
“therefore, respecting, as i always have respected, the will of the people and in accordance with article 82 of the federal constitution, i come before the supreme representatives of the nation in order to resign, unreservedly, the office of constitutional president of the republic with which the national vote honoured me, which i do with all the more reason, since in order to continue in office it would be necessary to shed mexican blood, endangering the credit of the country, dissipating its wealth, exhausting its resources and exposing its policy to international complications.
[395]
“i hope, se?ores, that, when the passions which are inherent to all revolutions have been calmed, a more conscientious and justified study will bring out in the national mind a correct acknowledgment, which will allow me to die carrying engraved in my soul a just impression of the estimation of my life, which throughout i have devoted and will devote to my countrymen.
“with all respect,
“porfirio diaz.”
