4—by some chronological confusion the new era has been made to begin four years before the appearance of the founder of christianity. when augustus had settled the whole empire he ordered the temple of janus to be closed and a census taken of all its inhabitants, which numbered one hundred and twenty millions. on this occasion jesus christ was born.
10—a roman army under varus was defeated and cut to pieces in germany. it was the severest defeat the romans had suffered since the overthrow and death of crassus, by the parthians, sixty-three years before.
14—the emperor augustus died and was succeeded by his step-son, tiberius.
29—jesus christ was crucified by pontius pilate, roman governor of judea, at the solicitation, and on the accusation, of the leading jews.
37—tiberius died and was succeeded by caligula. the commencement of the reign of tiberius was wise and moderate, but he soon became violent and cruel. caligula was a still greater monster of wickedness.
40—growing weary of his cruelty he was assassinated by one of his officers, and his uncle, claudius, was raised to the throne. he was of feeble intellect and became the tool of infamous favorites. he was poisoned by order of his wife, agrippina.
54—nero, the son of agrippina by a former husband, was made emperor at seventeen years of age. he exceeded[122] all description in folly, extravagance and crime. his violence and barbarity fell generally on the patricians and members of his court, but he was esteemed by the common people, as were most of the emperors, who spent vast sums on theatres and spectacles for their amusement. the two bases of the empire were the populace and the army. the emperor was terrible and tyrannical chiefly to the patricians, while the army made him formidable to the provinces and the barbarians. a conflagration which some attributed to the orders 64—of nero lasted nine days and destroyed the greater part of rome. nero cast the blame on the christians, who had become numerous, and raised a horrible persecution against them.
66—the jews rebelled and defied the roman empire.
68—nero was dethroned by the roman senate and army, and committed suicide to avoid punishment for his crimes.
69—three emperors, galba, otho and vitellius, were placed on the throne in succession, but rebellions were raised against them and all were put to death. vespasian, then besieging jerusalem, was proclaimed emperor by his army at the desire of the rulers of the eastern provinces, and, in the same year, overcame all opposition and commenced the first reign since augustus that was free from disgraceful profligacy and public crime.
70—titus, the son of vespasian, captured and destroyed jerusalem. vespasian, during a reign of ten years, restored order and prosperity to rome and the empire, but not without great labor and danger.
79—titus succeeded as emperor, and was remarkable for his clemency and care for his subjects. during his reign occurred the most fearful eruption of the volcano vesuvius on record. herculaneum and pompeii, two wealthy and flourishing cities, were destroyed, being[123] buried by the ashes. pliny, an eminent writer, was suffocated while observing the eruption.
81—titus died, to the great grief and loss of mankind, and was succeeded by his brother, domitian, who was one of the most infamous rulers that ever desolated the earth. he raised a violent persecution against the christians for refusing to adore his statues and worship him as a god. among the victims was his own cousin, clemens, who had embraced christianity. he 96—was assassinated by his wife and officers in self-defense, and the senate proclaimed nerva, a native of crete, emperor. he was remarkable for his lenity and all the gentle virtues. he was followed, after a reign of two 98—years, by trajan, whom he had adopted as his colleague and successor, who is said to have been the greatest and most deserving person of his time. he was, by birth, a spaniard, was wise and successful as a warrior and statesman, and extremely noble as a man. he bridged the danube and the euphrates rivers and conquered both the germans and parthians on the north and east of the empire. a stain on his memory was the persecution of the christians.
117—he was succeeded by adrian, in whose reign all the roman laws, or annual edicts of the pr?tors, were compiled into one body, and law assumed the dignity of a science. he promoted literature, but continued the persecution of the christians. a rebellion of the 139—jews was punished with merciless severity. he was followed by antoninus pius, who suspended all persecution of christians, promoted the best interests of all parts of the empire, and introduced, during a prosperous reign of twenty-two years, the most important reforms into every part of the government.
161—marcus aurelius, called the philosopher, succeeded. he carried on a successful war with the germans, and made the welfare of his subjects his special care, but[124] was seduced, by the pagan philosophers, into a persecution of the christians. having discovered his error he stopped it, toward the close of his reign. commodus, 180—his son, inherited the purple. he also inherited a vicious and cruel disposition, and received a demoralizing education from his mother. he was a monster of vice and cruelty. he was assassinated in 192—his bed by his own family and guards to save their lives. pertinax reigned three months, but, attempting to restrain the license of the soldiery, he was murdered by them. the soldiers in rome then proclaimed that the empire was for sale, and a rich merchant, didius, bought it from them and reigned in rome two months, 193—when he was also slain by the army. septimus severus, an able general, seized the purple which he secured against many rivals, and retained for eighteen years. his vigor alone prevented general anarchy, but he was systematically cruel.
211—caracalla, his son, succeeded. he was a bloody and atrocious tyrant, supported on the throne only by his soldiers, whose aid he secured by large pay. he was 217—murdered by the commander of his guards, macrinus, who succeeded in acquiring his place, but was soon 218—murdered by the soldiers. they raised heliogabalus, a young syrian priest of fourteen years of age, through the assurance of his female relatives that he was the son of caracalla, to the purple. he is described as the most cruel and infamous of all the roman emperors.
222—after four years of horrible crime, he was slain in a mutiny of his guard and his body thrown into the tiber. alexander severus succeeded. he was apparently a secret admirer of christianity and a model 235—prince. he was murdered by maximin, a thracian peasant, who had, by his valor, risen to high command in the army, who seized the reins of power. he was successful in war, but his severity provoked mutiny in[125] 238—various parts of the empire, and he was slain by his own soldiers. gordian succeeded, a heroic youth of a noble family. he was successful in war, but was murdered 244—by his own prime minister, philip, an arabian, who became emperor. he favored the christians, and reigned five years. in his reign, the thousandth year of the foundation of rome was celebrated by public 249—games. he was slain in a revolt by decius, the general of his army, who occupied the throne. he raised a most violent storm of persecution against the christians, who were despoiled of their goods and driven to caves and deserts. from this time is dated the sect of 250—anchorites, or hermits, who imagined they could acquire superior holiness by abandoning society and devoting themselves to meditation and prayer. the idea appears to have been derived from the persian magians, who, in this century restored the ancient dynasty and religion of the persians, or parsees, in persia. during the political and social disorganization that soon commenced the anchorites became numerous, and the system was extensively prevalent for a thousand years to the great injury of active and true christianity.
251—decius was slain in a battle with the goths, who had invaded the empire, and gallus became emperor.
253—he was put to death by emilianus, who attempted to seize the reins of government, but the army elected valerian, governor of gaul. the empire was invaded by the goths on the north and the persians under their king, sapor, on the east. from this time, it had to 259—fight for its life. valerian was defeated by sapor and remained nine years in captivity, gallienus, his son, becoming emperor. he was extremely incompetent and a multitude of rival claimants for the supreme authority arose in all directions. they were called the “thirty tyrants.” one of them, odenatus, king of palmyra, in the syrian desert, defeated sapor, and[126] gallienus proclaimed him his colleague. on the death of odenatus, his wife, zenobia, assumed the title of “queen of the east,” conquered egypt and ruled a wide region with success and splendor. both goths 262—and persians invaded asia minor. gallienus was murdered 268—and claudius succeeded. he defeated the goths 270—but died in a pestilence. aurelian succeeded. he was an able general. he subdued the germans and 272—goths, and conquered zenobia, one of the most remarkable 275—women of history. aurelian was assassinated by some victims of his severity, and tacitus, a roman senator succeeded, but died in seven months, and was followed by probus. he was a vigorous general, and drove back the barbarians on all sides, but attempting to employ his soldiers in labor on public works, they 282—revolted and murdered him. carus, the captain of the 283—imperial guard, was raised to the throne. dying the next year, his sons, carinus and numerianus, inherited his authority, but numerianus was assassinated in a 284—few months by his father-in-law, and diocletian, said to have been formerly a slave, was proclaimed emperor by the army. this was called “the era of the martyrs,” from the long and bloody persecutions against the christians. this was the tenth general attack on them, and proved to be the last. the barbarians pressing in great force on all sides, diocletian appointed several colleagues, and their united ability drove the invaders back.
305—diocletian resigned his power to galerius, who appointed three associates, making a division of the empire. one of these, constantius, died in britain, and was succeeded 306—by his son, constantine. for a time, there were six emperors, but one was killed, galerius died, and constantine conquered the others.
312—constantine changed the whole character of the empire by embracing christianity and relying largely on that[127] element for the support of his power, while he disbanded the pretorian, or royal guard, which had for two hundred years assumed to make and unmake emperors, and whose example, imitated by the other armies, kept the world periodically disturbed by the disputes and battles of rival claimants to the imperial purple. by the 313—edict of milan, constantine abolished all laws unfriendly to christianity; he restored the authority of the senate and magistrates, and removed his capital from rome to constantinople.
324—the pagan element was now so worn and decrepit that no general disorders resulted. whatever was left rallied under licinus, who was conquered by constantine. it appears to have been the strength of the christian element and its essential hostility to the roman principle of violent subjugation that produced so many and fierce persecutions. had it not been for the pressure of barbarians on the empire the prevalence of that system would have preserved society and the state for a thousand years more, as it actually did in the eastern empire; but every thing that man has the management of must be affected by his limitations, his mistakes and his follies. christianity needed a better ally, a fresher and purer society, built up by the young blood and better instincts of another and newer people.
constantine paid great respect to the clergy of the church and took a leading part in its general counsels—a great mistake and a great misfortune.
325—his spiritual supremacy was virtually acknowledged at the council of nice which he convoked.
330—constantine died leaving his vast dominions to his three sons, who, in the course of ten years, were reduced to one, constantius. after a troubled reign of twenty 361—years more, he died, and was succeeded by his cousin julian, called the “apostate,” from his renouncing christianity and laboring to restore the pagan religion.[128] in this he signally failed. he undertook to rebuild the jewish temple at jerusalem, without success.
363—he was mortally wounded in an invasion of persia, and was succeeded by jovian, who restored imperial favor 364—to the christian religion. he died after one years reign and valentinian was elected emperor by the council of ministers and generals. he divided the empire with his brother, valens, and afterward rome and constantinople usually had each an emperor. valentinian died 375—and was succeeded by his son, gratian.
378—the huns appeared in europe, having wandered from the borders of china, and defeated valens with dreadful slaughter. valens himself was among the slain. this was the commencement of the great migrations that finally overwhelmed the roman empire of the west.
379—gratian, left sole emperor, appointed theodosius, called the great, his colleague, who subdued the goths, repelled the huns, and restored order.
383—gratian was murdered by the usurper maximus.
388—theodosius conquered and put maximus to death and restored valentinian ii., brother of gratian, to the throne of the western empire. in a few years the whole 394—empire was reunited by the death of valentinian. theodosius soon died, universally lamented, leaving the two empires to his sons, honorius and arcadius.
402—alaric, the goth, invaded italy and, though defeated, endangered the safety of rome.
408—theodosius ii. succeeded to the empire of the east.
410—alaric again invaded italy and sacked rome. alaric soon after died and his forces were persuaded, by negotiations, to leave italy, but they permanently established themselves in spain and southern gaul (france). thus the empire began to fall to pieces.
425—honorius died and valentinian iii. became emperor.
429—the vandals soon conquered the roman provinces in[129] africa, under their king, genseric. they extended 440—their conquests to sicily.
447—attila, called the “scourge of god,” appeared at the head of the huns, and theodosius made a humiliating treaty with him to save his dominions from desolation.
448—in the next year the saxons and angles were invited into britain by the civilized romans, to protect them from the picts and scots, and laid the foundation of the modern anglo-saxon race, and the franks invaded gaul laying the foundations of the modern kingdom of france. england received its name from the angles—france from the franks.
451—attila, the hun, invaded gaul, and was defeated at 452—chalons, by the united romans and visigoths. attila then invaded italy and laid it waste, but died before he 454—had completed the ruin of the empire. valentinian iii. was murdered, and the vandals from sicily invaded italy and sacked rome.
