1. we have said that great men were a kind of summary of the tendencies of their period; an expression of a wide-spread thought or state of mind, which their fortunate combination of faculties and more favorable circumstances enabled them first to state, or embody, with distinctness; that the great following they obtained, and the extensive influence which enabled them to make great changes, were due to a coincident development in their generation of the same thoughts and tendencies. this explains the existence of eras in all departments of life. men grow, or progress, silently, from one to the other; when the general progress has reached the suitable point it breaks out in a leader more bold and positive than the rest.

the discovery of america was such an era; and the sudden[142] advance in many ways at about the same time was the result of gradual growth during many centuries. it was shown by the sudden appearance of great men in different spheres. columbus lived in the midst of a great era. printing, the use of the compass, the science of astronomy and the successful protest against spiritual despotism all commenced their great career just before, or just after him. the great painters, whose works are now so much esteemed, were all living in 1500. copernicus discovered the true planetary system in the year columbus died. gunpowder, which enabled cortez to conquer the mexican empire, came into general use about the same period. luther commenced the reformation, while the first adventurers were creeping, with amazed curiosity, around the shores of the american continent. the foundation of all the sciences was then laid. correct principles were enunciated for religion, government and thought; and the laws of nature, of human relations and of religious liberty were promulgated almost simultaneously.

2. but not all the european nations, and not all of any one nation, were prepared for this vast advance. the southern part of germany, and the people in general in southern europe, resisted what they regarded as a dangerous innovation, and the reform spread only north and west. the close connection instituted by constantine between church and state, which was renewed under charlemagne, raised at this time, a long series of religious wars, which contributed to embarrass protestantism in the same way by the necessity under which it lay, (or supposed it lay,) of seeking the protection of princes. luther’s reorganized church became the state religion of northern europe, and fell under government control in switzerland and holland. henry viii. of england, while yielding, like a true englishman, to the general tendency of his people, in taking the reformed faith under his protection constituted himself its head.

in the long contest between catholic and protestant, it became apparent that full religious liberty was not then possible[143] in europe; and the more, that a political element was involved in the contest. free thought naturally led to free institutions, and the leading european governments were, by the breaking up of feudalism, centralized and made more despotic than ever. thus its tendency to political revolution organized strong governments against it, or prevented its development by the check of governmental supremacy.

3. while this contest was working itself out in the firm establishment of protestantism under state patronage in northern europe, and its entire extinction in the stronger and more conservative southern monarchies, the discovery and subjugation of mexico and peru, with their wealth of precious metals and tropical productions, together with the trade with the east indies by the cape of good hope, passage to which was discovered before the daring venture of columbus, had greatly enriched europe. a large part of this wealth passed immediately, or in process of time, into the hands of the people as the result of personal adventure or of the activity of commerce, trade and industry. the maritime regions of northern germany, holland and england gathered much of this golden fruit; the maritime republics of italy fell into decay; and spain spent its vast treasures in war. it was led to this suicidal policy by various royal marriages which united the german empire, spain and the netherlands under one scepter. this vast ascendancy, united with great wealth, excited the alarm of other nations, and contributed to strengthen the reformation. the protestant princes of germany and the king of france united to reduce this dangerous pre-eminence in order to uphold the existing nationalities of europe, or the balance of power, as it was called. thus the emperor, charles v., was led to pour out the treasures of mexico and peru to sustain his political aspirations, and his wars turned the wealth of the indies into the channels of commerce and industry.

his successor, philip ii., still uniting spain and the netherlands, undertook to crush the reformed faith in the latter states,[144] and failed in a war of nearly half a century. this vast expense made spain, the richest country of europe, the poorest, still to the profit of commerce and the greater strength of protestant lands. the united netherlands became free protestant states and remarkably prosperous.

4. the english people advanced in laying the foundations of a free constitution from the time of the magna charta in 1215. they became strongly protestant, and finally their commons engaged in a contest with the king, charles i., for the maintenance of popular rights. he resisted to the last extremity, and the commons precipitated a revolution that dethroned and beheaded him, and established a republic. this was premature and expired with the great leader, cromwell, who had successfully headed it. royal power was restored, but a few years later was rearranged and so modified as to be suited to the independent but moderate tendencies of the people. a certain part of the english people, however, aspired to more complete liberty than a monarchy could afford them, and passed over the sea to secure freedom of conscience and political enfranchisement in the new world.

with the moderate and steady maintenance of their rights, characteristic of englishmen, they were governed under charters from the english sovereigns who, for the sake of extending their dominions, allowed them much freedom. european governments could not conform to the demands of progress by loosening the bands of arbitrary rule, and the new colonies became the refuge of such as aspired to more liberal institutions, as well as of adventurers in search of gain. thus the english colonies became the escape valve of european politics and society, the appendix of the reformation, and the hope of liberty.