we shall now have to avail ourselves of all the principles of art hitherto considered, in order to find our way through the labyrinth, as we must designate the origin of greek tragedy. i shall not be charged with absurdity in saying that the[pg 56] problem of this origin has as yet not even been seriously stated, not to say solved, however often the fluttering tatters of ancient tradition have been sewed together in sundry combinations and torn asunder again. this tradition tells us in the most unequivocal terms, that tragedy sprang from the tragic chorus, and was originally only chorus and nothing but chorus: and hence we feel it our duty to look into the heart of this tragic chorus as being the real proto-drama, without in the least contenting ourselves with current art-phraseology—according to which the chorus is the ideal spectator, or represents the people in contrast to the regal side of the scene. the latter explanatory notion, which sounds sublime to many a politician—that the immutable moral law was embodied by the democratic athenians in the popular chorus, which always carries its point over the passionate excesses and extravagances of kings—may be ever so forcibly suggested by an observation of aristotle: still it has no bearing on the original formation of tragedy, inasmuch as the entire antithesis of king and people, and, in general, the whole politico-social sphere, is excluded from the purely religious beginnings of tragedy; but, considering the well-known classical form of the chorus in ?schylus and sophocles, we should even deem it blasphemy to speak here of the anticipation of a "constitutional representation of the people," from which blasphemy others have not shrunk, however. the ancient governments knew of no constitutional representation of the people in praxi, and it is to[pg 57] be hoped that they did not even so much as "anticipate" it in tragedy.

much more celebrated than this political explanation of the chorus is the notion of a. w. schlegel, who advises us to regard the chorus, in a manner, as the essence and extract of the crowd of spectators,—as the "ideal spectator." this view when compared with the historical tradition that tragedy was originally only chorus, reveals itself in its true character, as a crude, unscientific, yet brilliant assertion, which, however, has acquired its brilliancy only through its concentrated form of expression, through the truly germanic bias in favour of whatever is called "ideal," and through our momentary astonishment. for we are indeed astonished the moment we compare our well-known theatrical public with this chorus, and ask ourselves if it could ever be possible to idealise something analogous to the greek chorus out of such a public. we tacitly deny this, and now wonder as much at the boldness of schlegel's assertion as at the totally different nature of the greek public. for hitherto we always believed that the true spectator, be he who he may, had always to remain conscious of having before him a work of art, and not an empiric reality: whereas the tragic chorus of the greeks is compelled to recognise real beings in the figures of the stage. the chorus of the oceanides really believes that it sees before it the titan prometheus, and considers itself as real as the god of the scene. and are we to own that he is the highest and purest type of spectator, who, like the oceanides, regards prometheus as[pg 58] real and present in body? and is it characteristic of the ideal spectator that he should run on the stage and free the god from his torments? we had believed in an ?sthetic public, and considered the individual spectator the better qualified the more he was capable of viewing a work of art as art, that is, ?sthetically; but now the schlegelian expression has intimated to us, that the perfect ideal spectator does not at all suffer the world of the scenes to act ?sthetically on him, but corporeo-empirically. oh, these greeks! we have sighed; they will upset our ?sthetics! but once accustomed to it, we have reiterated the saying of schlegel, as often as the subject of the chorus has been broached.

but the tradition which is so explicit here speaks against schlegel: the chorus as such, without the stage,—the primitive form of tragedy,—and the chorus of ideal spectators do not harmonise. what kind of art would that be which was extracted from the concept of the spectator, and whereof we are to regard the "spectator as such" as the true form? the spectator without the play is something absurd. we fear that the birth of tragedy can be explained neither by the high esteem for the moral intelligence of the multitude nor by the concept of the spectator without the play; and we regard the problem as too deep to be even so much as touched by such superficial modes of contemplation.

an infinitely more valuable insight into the signification of the chorus had already been displayed by schiller in the celebrated preface to his[pg 59] bride of messina, where he regarded the chorus as a living wall which tragedy draws round herself to guard her from contact with the world of reality, and to preserve her ideal domain and poetical freedom.

it is with this, his chief weapon, that schiller combats the ordinary conception of the natural, the illusion ordinarily required in dramatic poetry. he contends that while indeed the day on the stage is merely artificial, the architecture only symbolical, and the metrical dialogue purely ideal in character, nevertheless an erroneous view still prevails in the main: that it is not enough to tolerate merely as a poetical license that which is in reality the essence of all poetry. the introduction of the chorus is, he says, the decisive step by which war is declared openly and honestly against all naturalism in art.—it is, methinks, for disparaging this mode of contemplation that our would-be superior age has coined the disdainful catchword "pseudo-idealism." i fear, however, that we on the other hand with our present worship of the natural and the real have landed at the nadir of all idealism, namely in the region of cabinets of wax-figures. an art indeed exists also here, as in certain novels much in vogue at present: but let no one pester us with the claim that by this art the schiller-goethian "pseudo-idealism" has been vanquished.

it is indeed an "ideal" domain, as schiller rightly perceived, upon—which the greek satyric chorus, the chorus of primitive tragedy, was wont to walk, a domain raised far above the actual path[pg 60] of mortals. the greek framed for this chorus the suspended scaffolding of a fictitious natural state and placed thereon fictitious natural beings. it is on this foundation that tragedy grew up, and so it could of course dispense from the very first with a painful portrayal of reality. yet it is, not an arbitrary world placed by fancy betwixt heaven and earth; rather is it a world possessing the same reality and trustworthiness that olympus with its dwellers possessed for the believing hellene. the satyr, as being the dionysian chorist, lives in a religiously acknowledged reality under the sanction of the myth and cult. that tragedy begins with him, that the dionysian wisdom of tragedy speaks through him, is just as surprising a phenomenon to us as, in general, the derivation of tragedy from the chorus. perhaps we shall get a starting-point for our inquiry, if i put forward the proposition that the satyr, the fictitious natural being, is to the man of culture what dionysian music is to civilisation. concerning this latter, richard wagner says that it is neutralised by music even as lamplight by daylight. in like manner, i believe, the greek man of culture felt himself neutralised in the presence of the satyric chorus: and this is the most immediate effect of the dionysian tragedy, that the state and society, and, in general, the gaps between man and man give way to an overwhelming feeling of oneness, which leads back to the heart of nature. the metaphysical comfort,—with which, as i have here intimated, every true tragedy dismisses us—that, in spite of the perpetual change of phenomena,[pg 61] life at bottom is indestructibly powerful and pleasurable, this comfort appears with corporeal lucidity as the satyric chorus, as the chorus of natural beings, who live ineradicable as it were behind all civilisation, and who, in spite of the ceaseless change of generations and the history of nations, remain for ever the same.

with this chorus the deep-minded hellene, who is so singularly qualified for the most delicate and severe suffering, consoles himself:—he who has glanced with piercing eye into the very heart of the terrible destructive processes of so-called universal history, as also into the cruelty of nature, and is in danger of longing for a buddhistic negation of the will. art saves him, and through art life saves him—for herself.

for we must know that in the rapture of the dionysian state, with its annihilation of the ordinary bounds and limits of existence, there is a lethargic element, wherein all personal experiences of the past are submerged. it is by this gulf of oblivion that the everyday world and the world of dionysian reality are separated from each other. but as soon as this everyday reality rises again in consciousness, it is felt as such, and nauseates us; an ascetic will-paralysing mood is the fruit of these states. in this sense the dionysian man may be said to resemble hamlet: both have for once seen into the true nature of things, —they have perceived, but they are loath to act; for their action cannot change the eternal nature of things; they regard it as shameful or ridiculous that one should require of them to set aright the[pg 62] time which is out of joint. knowledge kills action, action requires the veil of illusion—it is this lesson which hamlet teaches, and not the cheap wisdom of john-a-dreams who from too much reflection, as it were from a surplus of possibilities, does not arrive at action at all. not reflection, no!—true knowledge, insight into appalling truth, preponderates over all motives inciting to action, in hamlet as well as in the dionysian man. no comfort avails any longer; his longing goes beyond a world after death, beyond the gods themselves; existence with its glittering reflection in the gods, or in an immortal other world is abjured. in the consciousness of the truth he has perceived, man now sees everywhere only the awfulness or the absurdity of existence, he now understands the symbolism in the fate of ophelia, he now discerns the wisdom of the sylvan god silenus: and loathing seizes him.

here, in this extremest danger of the will, art approaches, as a saving and healing enchantress; she alone is able to transform these nauseating reflections on the awfulness or absurdity of existence into representations wherewith it is possible to live: these are the representations of the sublime as the artistic subjugation of the awful, and the comic as the artistic delivery from the nausea of the absurd. the satyric chorus of dithyramb is the saving deed of greek art; the paroxysms described above spent their force in the intermediary world of these dionysian followers.