greek tragedy had a fate different from that of all her older sister arts: she died by suicide, in consequence of an irreconcilable conflict; accordingly she died tragically, while they all passed away very calmly and beautifully in ripe old age. for if it be in accordance with a happy state of things to depart this life without a struggle, leaving behind a fair posterity, the closing period of these older arts exhibits such a happy state of things: slowly they sink out of sight, and before their dying eyes already stand their fairer progeny, who impatiently lift up their heads with courageous mien. the death of greek tragedy, on the other hand, left an immense void, deeply felt everywhere. even as certain greek sailors in the time of tiberius once heard upon a lonesome island the thrilling cry, "great pan is dead": so now as it were sorrowful wailing sounded through the hellenic world: "tragedy is dead! poetry itself has perished with her! begone, begone, ye stunted, emaciated epigones! begone to hades, that ye may for once eat your fill of the crumbs of your former masters!"

but when after all a new art blossomed forth which revered tragedy as her ancestress and mistress, it was observed with horror that she did indeed bear the features of her mother, but those very features the latter had exhibited in her long death-struggle. it was euripides who fought this death-struggle of tragedy; the later art is known as the new attic comedy. in it the degenerate[pg 87] form of tragedy lived on as a monument of the most painful and violent death of tragedy proper.

this connection between the two serves to explain the passionate attachment to euripides evinced by the poets of the new comedy, and hence we are no longer surprised at the wish of philemon, who would have got himself hanged at once, with the sole design of being able to visit euripides in the lower regions: if only he could be assured generally that the deceased still had his wits. but if we desire, as briefly as possible, and without professing to say aught exhaustive on the subject, to characterise what euripides has in common with menander and philemon, and what appealed to them so strongly as worthy of imitation: it will suffice to say that the spectator was brought upon the stage by euripides. he who has perceived the material of which the promethean tragic writers prior to euripides formed their heroes, and how remote from their purpose it was to bring the true mask of reality on the stage, will also know what to make of the wholly divergent tendency of euripides. through him the commonplace individual forced his way from the spectators' benches to the stage itself; the mirror in which formerly only great and bold traits found expression now showed the painful exactness that conscientiously reproduces even the abortive lines of nature. odysseus, the typical hellene of the old art, sank, in the hands of the new poets, to the figure of the gr?culus, who, as the good-naturedly cunning domestic slave, stands henceforth in the centre of dramatic[pg 88] interest. what euripides takes credit for in the aristophanean "frogs," namely, that by his household remedies he freed tragic art from its pompous corpulency, is apparent above all in his tragic heroes. the spectator now virtually saw and heard his double on the euripidean stage, and rejoiced that he could talk so well. but this joy was not all: one even learned of euripides how to speak: he prides himself upon this in his contest with ?schylus: how the people have learned from him how to observe, debate, and draw conclusions according to the rules of art and with the cleverest sophistications. in general it may be said that through this revolution of the popular language he made the new comedy possible. for it was henceforth no longer a secret, how—and with what saws—the commonplace could represent and express itself on the stage. civic mediocrity, on which euripides built all his political hopes, was now suffered to speak, while heretofore the demigod in tragedy and the drunken satyr, or demiman, in comedy, had determined the character of the language. and so the aristophanean euripides prides himself on having portrayed the common, familiar, everyday life and dealings of the people, concerning which all are qualified to pass judgment. if now the entire populace philosophises, manages land and goods with unheard-of circumspection, and conducts law-suits, he takes all the credit to himself, and glories in the splendid results of the wisdom with which he inoculated the rabble.

it was to a populace prepared and enlightened[pg 89] in this manner that the new comedy could now address itself, of which euripides had become as it were the chorus-master; only that in this case the chorus of spectators had to be trained. as soon as this chorus was trained to sing in the euripidean key, there arose that chesslike variety of the drama, the new comedy, with its perpetual triumphs of cunning and artfulness. but euripides—the chorus-master—was praised incessantly: indeed, people would have killed themselves in order to learn yet more from him, had they not known that tragic poets were quite as dead as tragedy. but with it the hellene had surrendered the belief in his immortality; not only the belief in an ideal past, but also the belief in an ideal future. the saying taken from the well-known epitaph, "as an old man, frivolous and capricious," applies also to aged hellenism. the passing moment, wit, levity, and caprice, are its highest deities; the fifth class, that of the slaves, now attains to power, at least in sentiment: and if we can still speak at all of "greek cheerfulness," it is the cheerfulness of the slave who has nothing of consequence to answer for, nothing great to strive for, and cannot value anything of the past or future higher than the present. it was this semblance of "greek cheerfulness" which so revolted the deep-minded and formidable natures of the first four centuries of christianity: this womanish flight from earnestness and terror, this cowardly contentedness with easy pleasure, was not only contemptible to them, but seemed to be a specifically anti-christian sentiment. and we must ascribe[pg 90] it to its influence that the conception of greek antiquity, which lived on for centuries, preserved with almost enduring persistency that peculiar hectic colour of cheerfulness—as if there had never been a sixth century with its birth of tragedy, its mysteries, its pythagoras and heraclitus, indeed as if the art-works of that great period did not at all exist, which in fact—each by itself—can in no wise be explained as having sprung from the soil of such a decrepit and slavish love of existence and cheerfulness, and point to an altogether different conception of things as their source.

the assertion made a moment ago, that euripides introduced the spectator on the stage to qualify him the better to pass judgment on the drama, will make it appear as if the old tragic art was always in a false relation to the spectator: and one would be tempted to extol the radical tendency of euripides to bring about an adequate relation between art-work and public as an advance on sophocles. but, as things are, "public" is merely a word, and not at all a homogeneous and constant quantity. why should the artist be under obligations to accommodate himself to a power whose strength is merely in numbers? and if by virtue of his endowments and aspirations he feels himself superior to every one of these spectators, how could he feel greater respect for the collective expression of all these subordinate capacities than for the relatively highest-endowed individual spectator? in truth, if ever a greek artist treated his public throughout a long life with presumptuousness and self-sufficiency, it was euripides, who,[pg 91] even when the masses threw themselves at his feet, with sublime defiance made an open assault on his own tendency, the very tendency with which he had triumphed over the masses. if this genius had had the slightest reverence for the pandemonium of the public, he would have broken down long before the middle of his career beneath the weighty blows of his own failures. these considerations here make it obvious that our formula—namely, that euripides brought the spectator upon the stage, in order to make him truly competent to pass judgment—was but a provisional one, and that we must seek for a deeper understanding of his tendency. conversely, it is undoubtedly well known that ?schylus and sophocles, during all their lives, indeed, far beyond their lives, enjoyed the full favour of the people, and that therefore in the case of these predecessors of euripides the idea of a false relation between art-work and public was altogether excluded. what was it that thus forcibly diverted this highly gifted artist, so incessantly impelled to production, from the path over which shone the sun of the greatest names in poetry and the cloudless heaven of popular favour? what strange consideration for the spectator led him to defy, the spectator? how could he, owing to too much respect for the public —dis-respect the public?

euripides—and this is the solution of the riddle just propounded—felt himself, as a poet, undoubtedly superior to the masses, but not to two of his spectators: he brought the masses upon the stage; these two spectators he revered as the[pg 92] only competent judges and masters of his art: in compliance with their directions and admonitions, he transferred the entire world of sentiments, passions, and experiences, hitherto present at every festival representation as the invisible chorus on the spectators' benches, into the souls of his stage-heroes; he yielded to their demands when he also sought for these new characters the new word and the new tone; in their voices alone he heard the conclusive verdict on his work, as also the cheering promise of triumph when he found himself condemned as usual by the justice of the public.

of these two, spectators the one is—euripides himself, euripides as thinker, not as poet. it might be said of him, that his unusually large fund of critical ability, as in the case of lessing, if it did not create, at least constantly fructified a productively artistic collateral impulse. with this faculty, with all the clearness and dexterity of his critical thought, euripides had sat in the theatre and striven to recognise in the masterpieces of his great predecessors, as in faded paintings, feature and feature, line and line. and here had happened to him what one initiated in the deeper arcana of ?schylean tragedy must needs have expected: he observed something incommensurable in every feature and in every line, a certain deceptive distinctness and at the same time an enigmatic profundity, yea an infinitude, of background. even the clearest figure had always a comet's tail attached to it, which seemed to suggest the uncertain and the inexplicable. the same twilight shrouded the structure of the drama, especially the significance[pg 93] of the chorus. and how doubtful seemed the solution of the ethical problems to his mind! how questionable the treatment of the myths! how unequal the distribution of happiness and misfortune! even in the language of the old tragedy there was much that was objectionable to him, or at least enigmatical; he found especially too much pomp for simple affairs, too many tropes and immense things for the plainness of the characters. thus he sat restlessly pondering in the theatre, and as a spectator he acknowledged to himself that he did not understand his great predecessors. if, however, he thought the understanding the root proper of all enjoyment and productivity, he had to inquire and look about to see whether any one else thought as he did, and also acknowledged this incommensurability. but most people, and among them the best individuals, had only a distrustful smile for him, while none could explain why the great masters were still in the right in face of his scruples and objections. and in this painful condition he found that other spectator, who did not comprehend, and therefore did not esteem, tragedy. in alliance with him he could venture, from amid his lonesomeness, to begin the prodigious struggle against the art of ?schylus and sophocles—not with polemic writings, but as a dramatic poet, who opposed his own conception of tragedy to the traditional one.