nature of the religious order of phongyies.

he who has not seriously studied the religious system of buddhism, nor acquired accurate notions of its doctrinal principles, is scarcely capable of forming a correct opinion of the religious order of those austere recluses, whom europeans, with a mind biassed by educational influence, denominate priests of buddha. were we to apply to the members of that order the notions generally entertained of a priesthood, we would form a very erroneous conception of the real character of their institution. for in every religious system admitting of one or several beings superior to man, whose providential action influences his destinies either in this or the next world, persons invested with a sacerdotal character have always been considered as mediators between men and the acknowledged deity, offering to the supreme being on all public occasions the prayers and sacrifices of the people, and soliciting in return his gracious protection. when in the early ages of the world the sacerdotal dignity was coupled with the patriarchal or regal ones, when in the succeeding ages there existed a regular and distinct priesthood, such as subsisted under the mosaic dispensation, or among the greeks, romans, gauls, &c., the priests were looked upon as delegates of the people in all that related to national worship, carrying on in the name of the deity the mysterious intercourse that links heaven to earth. priesthood, therefore, necessarily implies the belief in a being superior to man and controlling his destinies. the moment such a belief is disregarded, the very idea of priesthood vanishes. buddhism, such at least as it is found existing in ceylon, burmah, siam, and other places, is a purely atheistical religious system, and presents the solitary instance, at least as far as my information goes, of a religious creed,[252] admitted by various nations, the doctrines of which are not based upon the notion of a supreme being controlling more or less the affairs of this world. in support of an assertion that may appear to many somewhat hazardous, we will briefly lay down the leading tenets of the buddhistic doctrine.

according to that system, matter is eternal. the existence of a world, its duration, destruction, and reproduction, all the various combinations and modifications matter is liable to, are the immediate results of the action of eternal and self-existing laws. through life man is subjected to the continual but successive influences of his good and bad deeds. this double influence always attends him through his numberless existences, and inevitably awards him happiness or misfortune, according as the respective sum of good or evil predominates. there exists an eternal law, which, when obliterated from the memory of men, can be known again, and, as it were, recovered only and thoroughly understood by the incomparable genius and matchless wisdom of certain extraordinary personages, called buddhas, who appear successively and at intervals during the various series or successions of worlds. these buddhas announce that law to all the then existing rational beings. the great object of that doctrine is to point out to those beings the means of freeing themselves from the influence of passions, and becoming abstracted from all that exists. being thereby delivered from the action of good or evil influence, which causes mortals to turn incessantly in the whirlpool of never-ending existences, men can obtain the state of neibban, or rest, that is to say, according to the popular opinion, a situation wherein the soul, disentangled from all that exists, alone with herself, indifferent to pain as well as to pleasure, folded, as it were, upon herself, remains for ever in an incomprehensible state of complete abstraction and absolute rest. i say that such is the popular opinion, fortunately unbiassed by scholastic theories. but the opinion of the buddhist doctors respecting[253] neibban is that it means the negation of all states of being; that is to say, a desolating and horrifying annihilation. a buddha is a being who, during myriads of existences, slowly and gradually gravitates towards this centre of an imaginary perfection by the practice of the highest virtues. having attained thereto, he becomes on a sudden gifted with a boundless genius, wherewith he at once discovers the wretched state of beings and the means of delivering them from it. he thoroughly understands the eternal law which alone can lead mortals in the right way, and enable them to come out of the circle of existences, wherein they have been unceasingly turning and moving in a state of perpetual agitation, opposite to that of fixity or rest. he preaches that law whereby man is taught the practice of those virtues which destroy gradually in him all evil influences, together with every affection for all that exists, and brings him at last to the end of existence, the possession of neibban. his task fulfilled, buddha dies, or rather, to use the language of buddhists, he enters into the state neibban. in that situation, which is truly inexplicable, he knows nothing of and enters no wise into the affairs of this world. he is as if he was not or had never been. he is indeed annihilated.

buddhists venerate three precious things—buddha, his law, and the assembly of the just or perfect—in the same sense as we venerate and admire what is morally good and beautiful, such as virtue considered abstractedly, and the acts originating from it. the statues of the last buddha gaudama are honoured by his followers, not with the idea that certain powers or virtues are inherent in them, but solely because they are the visible representations of buddha, who, according to buddhists, desired that the same honours should be paid to them as would be offered to his person, were he yet living among them. this faint outline of the buddhistic creed is sufficient to bear out the above assertion, that it is in no wise based on the belief in a supreme being, but that it is strictly atheistical,[254] and therefore that no real priesthood can ever be found existing under such a system. it may prove, too, of some assistance for better understanding what is to be said regarding the subjects of this notice.

the talapoins are called by the burmese phongyies, which term means great glory: or rahans, which means perfect. they are known in ceylon, siam, thibet, under different names, conveying nearly the same meaning and expressing either the nature or the object of their profession.

what induces a follower of buddha to embrace the talapoinic state? what is the object of his pursuit in entering on such a peculiar and extraordinary course of life? the answer to these questions will supply us with accurate notions of the real nature of this singular order of devotees. a buddhist on becoming a member of the holy society proposes to keep the law of buddha in a more perfect manner than his other co-religionists. he intends to observe not only its general ordinances obligatory on every individual, but also its prescriptions of a higher excellency, leading to an uncommon sanctity and perfection, which can be the lot of but a comparatively small number of fervent and resolute persons. he aims at weakening within himself all the evil propensities that give origin and strength to the principle of demerits. by the practice and observance of the highest and sublimest precepts and counsels of the law, he establishes, confirms, and consolidates in his own soul the principle of merits, which is to work upon him during the various existences he has as yet to go through, and gradually lead him to that perfection which will qualify him for and entitle him to the state of neibban, the object of the ardent desires and earnest pursuit of every true and genuine disciple of buddha. the life of the last buddha gaudama, his doctrines as well as his examples, he proposes to copy with a scrupulous fidelity and to follow with unremitting ardour. such is the great model that he proposes to himself for[255] imitation. gaudama withdrew from the world, renounced its seducing pleasures and dazzling vanities, curbed his passions under the yoke of restraint, and strove to practise the highest virtues, particularly self-denial, in order to arrive at a state of complete indifference to all that is within or without self; which is, as it were, the threshold of neibban.

the talapoin, fixing his regards on that matchless pattern of perfection, would fain reproduce, as far as it lies in his power, all its features in his own person. like buddha himself, he parts with his family, relatives, and friends, and seeks for admission into the society of the perfect; he abandons and leaves his home, to enter into the asylum of peace and retirement; he forsakes the riches of this world to practise the strictest poverty; he renounces the pleasures of this world, even the lawful ones, to live according to the rules of the severest abstinence and purest chastity; he exchanges his secular dress for that of the new profession he enters on; he gives up his own will, and fetters his own liberty, to attend, through every act and all the particulars of life, to the regulations of the brotherhood. he is a talapoin for himself and for his own benefit, to acquire merits which he shares with nobody else. on the occasion of certain offerings or alms being presented to him by some benevolent admirers of his holy mode of life, he will repay his benefactors by repeating to them certain precepts, commands, and points of the law; but he is not bound by his professional character to expound the law to the people. separated from the world by his dress and his peculiar way of living, he remains a stranger to all that takes place without the walls of his monastery. he is not charged with the care of souls, and therefore never presumes to rebuke any one that trespasses the law, or to censure the conduct of the profligate.

the ceremonies of the buddhistic worship are simple and few. the talapoin is not considered as a minister[256] whose presence is an essential requisite when they are to be performed. pagodas are erected, statues of buddha are inaugurated, offerings of flowers, tapers, and small ornaments are made, particularly on the days of the new and full moon, but on all those solemn occasions the interference of the phongyie is in no way considered as necessary, so that the whole worship exists independently of him. he is not to be seen on the particular occasions of births and marriages. he is, it is true, occasionally asked to attend funerals; but he then acts, not as a minister performing a ceremony, but as a private person. he is present for the sake of receiving alms that are profusely bestowed upon him by the relatives of the defunct.

the buddhists have three months of the year, from the full moon of july to the full moon of october, particularly devoted to a stricter observance of the practices and ceremonies of the law. crowds of people of both sexes resort to the pagodas, and often spend whole nights in the buildings erected close to those places. the most fervent among them fast and abstain from profane amusements during that period; they devote more time to the reading of their sacred books and the repetition of certain formulas calculated to remind them of certain important truths, or intended to praise the last buddha gaudama and the law he has published. alms pour more abundantly into the peaceable dwellings of the pious recluses. during all the time the talapoin quietly remains in his place, without altering his mode of life, or deviating in the least from his never-changing usages and ordinary habits. by the rules of his profession he is directed to pay, during that time, a particular regard to religious observances, to join his brethren from time to time in the recital of certain formulas, and in the reading of the book embodying the regulations of the profession. he enjoys, as usual, the good things which his liberal co-religionists take pleasure in proffering to him. on two occasions the writer has seen, and on many has heard of talapoins withdrawing[257] during the three months of lent to some lonely place, living alone in small huts, shunning the company of men, and leading an eremitical life, to remain at liberty to devote all their time to meditations on the most excellent points of the law of buddha, combating their passions, and enjoying in that retired situation a foretaste of the never-troubled rest of neibban.

in many respects the talapoinic institutions may be likened to those of some religious orders that appeared successively in almost every christian country previous to the era of the reformation, and that are, up to this day, to be met with amidst the churches of the latin and greek rites. like the monk, the talapoin bids a farewell to the world, wears a particular dress, leads a life of community, abstracts himself from all that gives strength to his passions, by embracing a state of voluntary poverty and absolute renunciation of all sensual gratifications. he aims at obtaining, by a stricter observance of the law’s most sublime precepts, an uncommon degree of sanctity and perfection. all his time is regulated by the rules of his profession, and devoted to repeating certain formulas of prayers, reading the sacred scriptures, begging alms for his support, &c.

these features of exterior resemblance, common to institutions of creeds so opposite to each other, have induced several writers, little favourable to christianity, to pronounce without further inquiry that catholicism has borrowed from buddhism many ceremonies, institutions, and disciplinary regulations. some of them have gone so far as to pretend to find in it the very origin of christianity. they have, however, been ably confuted by abel remusat, in his memoir entitled “chronological researches into the lamaic hierarchy of thibet.” without entertaining in the least the presumptuous idea of entering into a controversy entirely foreign to his purpose, the writer will confine himself to making one or two remarks calculated to show that the first conclusion is, to say the[258] least of it, a premature one. when in two religious creeds, entirely opposed to each other in their ultimate object, there are several minor objects equally set forth by both, it will necessarily happen that, in many instances, means nearly similar will be prescribed on both sides for effectually obtaining them, independent of any previously concerted plan or imitation. the christian system and the buddhistic one, though differing from each other in their respective objects and ends, as much as truth from error, have, it must be confessed, many striking features of an astonishing resemblance. there are many moral precepts equally commanded and enforced in common by both creeds. it will not be deemed rash to assert that most of the moral truths prescribed by the gospel are to be met with in the buddhistic scriptures. the essential, vital, and capital discrepancy lies in the difference of the ends to which the two creeds lead, but not in the variance of the means they prescribe for the attainment of them. the gospel tends to reunite man to his maker, points out to him the way he must follow for arriving at the possession and enjoyment of him who is the great principle and end of all things, and teaches him, as a paramount duty, to conform his will and inclinations to his commands. buddhism tends to abstract man from all that is without self, and makes self his own and sole centre. it exhorts him to the practice of many eminent virtues, which are to help him to rise to an imaginary perfection, the summit of which is the incomprehensible state of neibban. it is the mildest expression which the writer can command when he has to speak of so sad a subject, the final end of a buddhist. it would be more correct to say at once that the pretended perfect being is led, by the principles of his creed, into the dark and fathomless abyss of annihilation.

if the end aimed at by the followers of buddha is widely different from that which the disciples of christ strive to obtain, the means prescribed for the attainment[259] of these two ends are, in many respects, very much similar to each other. both creeds teach man to combat, control, and master the passions of his heart, to make reason predominate over sense, mind over matter, to root up from his heart every affection for the things of this world, and to practise the virtues required for the attainment of these great objects. is there anything surprising that persons, having, in many respects, views nearly similar, resort to means or expedients nearly alike for securing the object of their pursuit, without having ever seen or consulted each other? he who intends to practise absolute poverty must of course abandon all his earthly property. he who proposes renouncing the world ought to withdraw from it. he who will lead a contemplative life must look out for a retired place, far from the gaze and agitation of the world. to control passions, and particularly the fiercest of all, the sensual appetite, it is required that one should keep himself separate from all that is calculated to kindle its fires and feed its violence. every profession has its distinctive marks and peculiar characteristics. hence peculiarity of dress, manners, and habits in those who have adopted a mode of life differing from that of the rest of the community. he who has bound himself to the daily recitation of certain prayers or devotional formulas a certain number of times will have recourse to some instrument, or devise some means for ascertaining the number of times he has complied with his regulation in this respect. he, too, who is eager to acquire self-knowledge and to carry on a successful war with himself will apply to a guide to whom he will lay open his whole soul, and ask spiritual advice that will enable him to overcome the obstacles he meets on his way to perfection.

these and many other points are common to all those that intend to observe not only the precepts but also the mere counsels of their respective creeds. causes being the same, in many instances, in both systems, consequences almost analogous must inevitably result therefrom. religious[260] institutions always bear the stamp of the religious ideas that have given rise to them. they, together with their rules and regulations, are not the principle, but the immediate consequence or offspring of religion, such as it is understood by the people professing it. they exemplify and illustrate religious notions already entertained, but they never create such as are not yet in existence. when the learned shall have collected sufficient materials for giving an accurate history of the origin, progress, spread, and dogmatical revolutions of buddhism, it will not be uninteresting to inquire into the causes that have operated in communicating to two religious systems essentially differing in their respective tendencies so many points of resemblance. but that study is yet to be made. we know very little on all those points. the best informed are compelled to acknowledge that in the present state of information we are still in the dark, the thickness of which is occasionally relieved by a few transient and uncertain glimpses which are insufficient to enlighten the mind, and enable the searcher after truth to guide safely his steps. in reading the particulars of the life of the last buddha gaudama, it is impossible not to feel reminded of many circumstances relating to our saviour’s life, such as it has been sketched out by the evangelists. the origin of the close affinity between many doctrinal points and maxims common both to christianity and buddhism having been ascertained, it will not be difficult to find out and explain how the votaries of both have come to adopt so many practices, ceremonies, observances, and institutions nearly similar.

having endeavoured to explain the nature of the institution of the talapoins, and the object aimed at by its professed members, we will now proceed to examine its systematical organisation, or sacred hierarchy.