of public diversions they have but one sort, and in all their meetings the same is still exhibited. young men, such as make it their pastime, fling themselves naked and dance amongst sharp swords and the deadly points of javelins. from habit they acquire their skill, and from their skill a graceful manner; yet from hence draw no gain or hire: though this adventurous gaiety has its reward, namely, that of pleasing the spectators. what is marvellous, playing at dice is one of their most serious employments; and even sober, they are gamesters: nay, so desperately do they venture upon the chance of winning or losing, that when their whole substance is played away, they stake their liberty and their persons upon one and the last throw. the loser goes calmly into voluntary bondage. however younger he be, however stronger, he tamely suffers himself to be bound and sold by the winner. such is their perseverance in an evil course: they themselves call it honour.

slaves of this class, they exchange in commerce, to free themselves too from the shame of such a victory. of their other slaves they make not such use as we do of ours, by distributing amongst them the several offices and employments of the family. each of them has a dwelling of his own, each a household to govern. his lord uses him like a tenant, and obliges him to pay a quantity of grain, or of cattle, or of cloth. thus far only the subserviency of the slave extends. all the other duties in a family, not the slaves, but the wives and children discharge. to inflict stripes upon a slave, or to put him in chains, or to doom him to severe labour, are things rarely seen. to kill them they sometimes are wont, not through correction or government, but in heat and rage, as they would an enemy, save that no vengeance or penalty follows. the freedmen very little surpass the slaves, rarely are of moment in the house; in the community never, excepting only such nations where arbitrary dominion prevails. for there they bear higher sway than the free-born, nay, higher than the nobles. in other countries the inferior condition of freedmen is a proof of public liberty.

to the practice of usury and of increasing money by interest, they are strangers; and hence is found a better guard against it, than if it were forbidden. they shift from land to land; and, still appropriating a portion suitable to the number of hands for manuring, anon parcel out the whole amongst particulars according to the condition and quality of each. as the plains are very spacious, the allotments are easily assigned. every year they change, and cultivate a fresh soil; yet still there is ground to spare. for they strive not to bestow labour proportionable to the fertility and compass of their lands, by planting orchards, by enclosing meadows, by watering gardens. from the earth, corn only is extracted. hence they quarter not the year into so many seasons. winter, spring, and summer, they understand; and for each have proper appellations. of the name and blessings of autumn, they are equally ignorant.

in performing their funerals, they show no state or vainglory. this only is carefully observed, that with the corpses of their signal men certain woods be burned. upon the funeral pile they accumulate neither apparel nor perfumes. into the fire, are always thrown the arms of the dead, and sometimes his horse. with sods of earth only the sepulchre is raised. the pomp of tedious and elaborate monuments they contemn, as things grievous to the deceased. tears and wailings they soon dismiss: their affliction and woe they long retain. in women, it is reckoned becoming to bewail their loss; in men, to remember it. this is what in general we have learned, in the original and customs of the whole people of germany. i shall now deduce the institutions and usages of the several people, as far as they vary one from another; as also an account of what nations from thence removed, to settle themselves in gaul.

that the gauls were in times past more puissant and formidable, is related by the prince of authors, the deified julius [caesar]; and hence it is probable that they too have passed into germany. for what a small obstacle must be a river, to restrain any nation, as each grew more potent, from seizing or changing habitations; when as yet all habitations were common, and not parted or appropriated by the founding and terror of monarchies? the region therefore between the hercynian forest and the rivers moenus and rhine, was occupied by the helvetians; as was that beyond it by the boians, both nations of gaul. there still remains a place called boiemum, which denotes the primitive name and antiquity of the country, although the inhabitants have been changed. but whether the araviscans are derived from the osians, a nation of germans passing into pannonia, or the osians from the araviscans removing from thence into germany, is a matter undecided; since they both still use the language, the same customs and the same laws. for, as of old they lived alike poor and alike free, equal proved the evils and advantages on each side the river, and common to both people. the treverians and nervians aspire passionately to the reputation of being descended from the germans; since by the glory of this original, they would escape all imputation of resembling the gauls in person and effeminacy. such as dwell upon the bank of the rhine, the vangiones, the tribocians, and the nemetes, are without doubt all germans. the ubians are ashamed of their original; though they have a particular honour to boast, that of having merited an establishment as a roman colony, and still delight to be called agrippinensians, after the name of their founder: they indeed formerly came from beyond the rhine, and, for the many proofs of their fidelity, were settled upon the very bank of the river; not to be there confined or guarded themselves, but to guard and defend that boundary against the rest of the germans.

of all these nations, the batavians are the most signal in bravery. they inhabit not much territory upon the rhine, but possess an island in it. they were formerly part of the cattans, and by means of feuds at home removed to these dwellings; whence they might become a portion of the roman empire. with them this honour still remains, as also the memorials of their ancient association with us: for they are not under the contempt of paying tribute, nor subject to be squeezed by the farmers of the revenue. free from all impositions and payments, and only set apart for the purposes of fighting, they are reserved wholly for the wars, in the same manner as a magazine of weapons and armour. under the same degree of homage are the nation of the mattiacians. for such is the might and greatness of the roman people, as to have carried the awe and esteem of their empire beyond the rhine and the ancient boundaries. thus the mattiacians, living upon the opposite banks, enjoy a settlement and limits of their own; yet in spirit and inclination are attached to us: in other things resembling the batavians, save that as they still breathe their original air, still possess their primitive soil, they are thence inspired with superior vigour and keenness. amongst the people of germany i would not reckon those who occupy the lands which are under decimation, though they be such as dwell beyond the rhine and the danube. by several worthless and vagabond gauls, and such as poverty rendered daring, that region was seized as one belonging to no certain possessor: afterwards it became a skirt of the empire and part of a province, upon the enlargement of our bounds and the extending of our garrisons and frontier.

beyond these are the cattans, whose territories begin at the hercynian forest, and consist not of such wide and marshy plains, as those of the other communities contained within the vast compass of germany; but produce ranges of hills, such as run lofty and contiguous for a long tract, then by degrees sink and decay. moreover the hercynian forest attends for a while its native cattans, then suddenly forsakes them. this people are distinguished with bodies more hardy and robust, compact limbs, stern countenances, and greater vigour of spirit. for germans, they are men of much sense and address. they dignify chosen men, listen to such as are set over them, know how to preserve their post, to discern occasions, to rebate their own ardour and impatience; how to employ the day, how to entrench themselves by night. they account fortune amongst things slippery and uncertain, but bravery amongst such as are never-failing and secure; and, what is exceeding rare nor ever to be learnt but by a wholesome course of discipline, in the conduct of the general they repose more assurance than in the strength of the army. their whole forces consist of foot, who besides their arms carry likewise instruments of iron and their provisions. you may see other germans proceed equipped to battle, but the cattans so as to conduct a war. they rarely venture upon excursions or casual encounters. it is in truth peculiar to cavalry, suddenly to conquer, or suddenly to fly. such haste and velocity rather resembles fear. patience and deliberation are more akin to intrepidity.

moreover a custom, practised indeed in other nations of germany, yet very rarely and confined only to particulars more daring than the rest, prevails amongst the cattans by universal consent. as soon as they arrive to maturity of years, they let their hair and beards continue to grow, nor till they have slain an enemy do they ever lay aside this form of countenance by vow sacred to valour. over the blood and spoil of a foe they make bare their face. they allege, that they have now acquitted themselves of the debt and duty contracted by their birth, and rendered themselves worthy of their country, worthy of their parents. upon the spiritless, cowardly and unwarlike, such deformity of visage still remains. all the most brave likewise wear an iron ring (a mark of great dishonour this in that nation) and retain it as a chain; till by killing an enemy they become released. many of the cattans delight always to bear this terrible aspect; and, when grown white through age, become awful and conspicuous by such marks, both to the enemy and their own countrymen. by them in all engagements the first assault is made: of them the front of the battle is always composed, as men who in their looks are singular and tremendous. for even during peace they abate nothing in the grimness and horror of their countenance. they have no house to inhabit, no land to cultivate, nor any domestic charge or care. with whomsoever they come to sojourn, by him they are maintained; always very prodigal of the substance of others, always despising what is their own, till the feebleness of old age overtakes them, and renders them unequal to the efforts of such rigid bravery.

next to the cattans, dwell the usipians and tencterians; upon the rhine now running in a channel uniform and certain, such as suffices for a boundary. the tencterians, besides their wonted glory in war, surpass in the service and discipline of their cavalry. nor do the cattans derive higher applause from their foot, than the tencterians from their horse. such was the order established by their forefathers, and what their posterity still pursue. from riding and exercising of horse, their children borrow their pastimes; in this exercise the young men find matter for emulating one another, and in this the old men take pleasure to persevere. horses are by the father bequeathed as part of his household and family, horses are conveyed amongst the rights of succession, and as such the son receives them; but not the eldest son, like other effects, by priority of birth, but he who continues to be signal in boldness and superior in war.

contiguous to the tencterians formerly dwelt the bructerians, in whose room it is said the chamavians and angrivarians are now settled; they who expulsed and almost extirpated the bructerians, with the concurrence of the neighbouring nations: whether in detestation of their arrogance, or allured by the love of spoil, or through the special favour of the gods towards us romans. they in truth even vouchsafed to gratify us with the sight of the battle. in it there fell above sixty thousand souls, without a blow struck by the romans; but, what is a circumstance still more glorious, fell to furnish them with a spectacle of joy and recreation. may the gods continue and perpetuate amongst these nations, if not any love for us, yet by all means this their animosity and hate towards each other: since whilst the destiny of the empire thus urges it, fortune cannot more signally befriend us, than in sowing strife amongst our foes.

the angrivarians and chamavians are enclosed behind, by the dulgibinians and chasuarians; and by other nations not so much noted: before the frisians face them. the country of frisia is divided into two; called the greater and lesser, according to the measure of their strength. both nations stretch along the rhine, quite to the ocean; and surround vast lakes such as once have born roman fleets. we have moreover even ventured out from thence into the ocean, and upon its coasts common fame has reported the pillars of hercules to be still standing: whether it be that hercules ever visited these parts, or that to his renowned name we are wont to ascribe whatever is grand and glorious everywhere. neither did drusus who made the attempt, want boldness to pursue it: but the roughness of the ocean withstood him, nor would suffer discoveries to be made about itself, no more than about hercules. thenceforward the enterprise was dropped: nay, more pious and reverential it seemed, to believe the marvellous feats of the gods than to know and to prove them.

hitherto, i have been describing germany towards the west. to the northward, it winds away with an immense compass. and first of all occurs the nation of the chaucians; who though they begin immediately at the confines of the frisians, and occupy part of the shore, extend so far as to border upon all the several people whom i have already recounted; till at last, by a circuit, they reach quite to the boundaries of the cattans. a region so vast, the chaucians do not only possess but fill; a people of all the germans the most noble, such as would rather maintain their grandeur by justice than violence. they live in repose, retired from broils abroad, void of avidity to possess more, free from a spirit of domineering over others. they provoke no wars, they ravage no countries, they pursue no plunder. of their bravery and power, the chief evidence arises from hence, that, without wronging or oppressing others, they are come to be superior to all. yet they are all ready to arm, and if an exigency require, armies are presently raised, powerful and abounding as they are in men and horses; and even when they are quiet and their weapons laid aside, their credit and name continue equally high.

along the side of the chaucians and cattans dwell the cheruscans; a people who finding no enemy to rouse them, were enfeebled by a peace over lasting and uniform, but such as they failed not to nourish. a conduct which proved more pleasing than secure; since treacherous is that repose which you enjoy amongst neighbours that are very powerful and very fond of rule and mastership. when recourse is once had to the sword, modesty and fair dealing will be vainly pleaded by the weaker; names these which are always assumed by the stronger. thus the cheruscans, they who formerly bore the character of good and upright, are now called cowards and fools; and the fortune of the cattans who subdued them, grew immediately to be wisdom. in the ruin of the cheruscans, the fosians, also their neighbours, were involved; and in their calamities bore an equal share, though in their prosperity they had been weaker and less considered.

in the same winding tract of germany live the cimbrians, close to the ocean; a community now very small, but great in fame. nay, of their ancient renown, many and extensive are the traces and monuments still remaining; even their entrenchments upon either shore, so vast in compass that from thence you may even now measure the greatness and numerous bands of that people, and assent to the account of an army so mighty. it was on the six hundred and fortieth year of rome, when of the arms of the cimbrians the first mention was made, during the consulship of caecilius metellus and papirius carbo. if from that time we count to the second consulship of the emperor trajan, the interval comprehends near two hundred and ten years; so long have we been conquering germany. in a course of time, so vast between these two periods, many have been the blows and disasters suffered on each side. in truth neither from the samnites, nor from the carthaginians, nor from both spains, nor from all the nations of gaul, have we received more frequent checks and alarms; nor even from the parthians: for, more vigorous and invincible is the liberty of the germans than the monarchy of the arsacides. indeed, what has the power of the east to allege to our dishonour; but the fall of crassus, that power which was itself overthrown and abased by ventidius, with the loss of the great king pacorus bereft of his life? but by the germans the roman people have been bereft of five armies, all commanded by consuls; by the germans, the commanders of these armies, carbo, and cassius, and scaurus aurelius, and servilius caepio, as also marcus manlius, were all routed or taken: by the germans even the emperor augustus was bereft of varus and three legions. nor without difficulty and loss of men were they defeated by caius marius in italy, or by the deified julius in gaul, or by drusus or tiberius or germanicus in their native territories. soon after, the mighty menaces of caligula against them ended in mockery and derision. thenceforward they continued quiet, till taking advantage of our domestic division and civil wars, they stormed and seized the winter entrenchments of the legions, and aimed at the dominion of gaul; from whence they were once more expulsed, and in the times preceding the present, we gained a triumph over them rather than a victory.

i must now proceed to speak of the suevians, who are not, like the cattans and tencterians, comprehended in a single people; but divided into several nations all bearing distinct names, though in general they are entitled suevians, and occupy the larger share of germany. this people are remarkable for a peculiar custom, that of twisting their hair and binding it up in a knot. it is thus the suevians are distinguished from the other germans, thus the free suevians from their slaves. in other nations, whether from alliance of blood with the suevians, or, as is usual from imitation, this practice is also found, yet rarely, and never exceeds the years of youth. the suevians, even when their hair is white through age, continue to raise it backwards in a manner stern and staring; and often tie it upon the top of their head only. that of their princes, is more accurately disposed, and so far they study to appear agreeable and comely; but without any culpable intention. for by it, they mean not to make love or to incite it: they thus dress when proceeding to war, and deck their heads so as to add to their height and terror in the eyes of the enemy.

of all the suevians, the semnones recount themselves to be the most ancient and most noble. the belief of their antiquity is confirmed by religious mysteries. at a stated time of the year, all the several people descended from the same stock, assemble by their deputies in a wood; consecrated by the idolatries of their forefathers, and by superstitious awe in times of old. there by publicly sacrificing a man, they begin the horrible solemnity of their barbarous worship. to this grove another sort of reverence is also paid. no one enters it otherwise than bound with ligatures, thence professing his subordination and meanness, and power of the deity there. if he fall down, he is not permitted to rise or be raised, but grovels along upon the ground. and of all their superstition, this is the drift and tendency; that from this place the nation drew their original, that here god, the supreme governor of the world, resides, and that all things else whatsoever are subject to him and bound to obey him. the potent condition of the semnones has increased their influence and authority, as they inhabit an hundred towns; and from the largeness of their community it comes, that they hold themselves for the head of the suevians.

what on the contrary ennobles the langobards is the smallness of their number, for that they, who are surrounded with very many and very powerful nations, derive their security from no obsequiousness or plying; but from the dint of battle and adventurous deeds. there follow in order the reudignians, and aviones, and angles, and varinians, and eudoses, and suardones and nuithones; all defended by rivers or forests. nor in one of these nations does aught remarkable occur, only that they universally join in the worship of herthum; that is to say, the mother earth. her they believe to interpose in the affairs of men, and to visit countries. in an island of the ocean stands the wood castum: in it is a chariot dedicated to the goddess covered over with a curtain, and permitted to be touched by none but the priest. whenever the goddess enters this her holy vehicle, he perceives her; and with profound veneration attends the motion of the chariot, which is always drawn by yoked cows. then it is that days of rejoicing always ensue, and in all places whatsoever which she descends to honour with a visit and her company, feasts and recreation abound. they go not to war; they touch no arms; fast laid up is every hostile weapon; peace and repose are then only known, then only beloved, till to the temple the same priest reconducts the goddess when well tired with the conversation of mortal beings. anon the chariot is washed and purified in a secret lake, as also the curtain; nay, the deity herself too, if you choose to believe it. in this office it is slaves who minister, and they are forthwith doomed to be swallowed up in the same lake. hence all men are possessed with mysterious terror; as well as with a holy ignorance what that must be, which none see but such as are immediately to perish. moreover this quarter of the suevians stretches to the middle of germany.

the community next adjoining, is that of the hermondurians; (that i may now follow the course of the danube, as a little before i did that of the rhine) a people this, faithful to the romans. so that to them alone of all the germans, commerce is permitted; not barely upon the bank of the rhine, but more extensively, and even in that glorious colony in the province of rhoetia. they travel everywhere at their own discretion and without a guard; and when to other nations, we show no more than our arms and encampments, to this people we throw open our houses and dwellings, as to men who have no longing to possess them. in the territories of the hermondurians rises the elbe, a river very famous and formerly well known to us; at present we only hear it named.

close by the hermondurians reside the nariscans, and next to them the marcomanians and quadians. amongst these the marcomanians are most signal in force and renown; nay, their habitation itself they acquired by their bravery, as from thence they formerly expulsed the boians. nor do the nariscans or quadians degenerate in spirit. now this is as it were the frontier of germany, as far as germany is washed by the danube. to the times within our memory the marcomanians and quadians were governed by kings, who were natives of their own, descended from the noble line of maroboduus and tudrus. at present they are even subject to such as are foreigners. but the whole strength and sway of their king is derived from the authority of the romans. from our arms, they rarely receive any aid; from our money very frequently.

nor less powerful are the several people beyond them; namely, the marsignians, the gothinians, the osians and the burians, who altogether enclose the marcomanians and quadians behind. of those, the marsignians and the burians in speech and dress resemble the suevians. from the gallic language spoken by the gothinians, and from that of pannonia by the osians, it is manifest that neither of these people are germans; as it is also from their bearing to pay tribute. upon them as upon aliens their tribute is imposed, partly by the sarmatians, partly by the quadians. the gothinians, to heighten their disgrace, are forced to labour in the iron mines. by all these several nations but little level country is possessed: they are seated amongst forests, and upon the ridges and declivities of mountains. for, suevia is parted by a continual ridge of mountains; beyond which, live many distinct nations. of these the lygians are most numerous and extensive, and spread into several communities. it will suffice to mention the most puissant; even the arians, helvicones, manimians; elysians and naharvalians. amongst the naharvalians is shown a grove, sacred to devotion extremely ancient. over it a priest presides apparelled like a woman; but according to the explication of the romans, 'tis castor and pollux who are here worshipped. this divinity is named alcis. there are indeed no images here, no traces of an extraneous superstition; yet their devotion is addressed to young men and to brothers. now the arians, besides their forces, in which they surpass the several nations just recounted, are in their persons stern and truculent; and even humour and improve their natural grimness and ferocity by art and time. they wear black shields, their bodies are painted black, they choose dark nights for engaging in battle; and by the very awe and ghastly hue of their army, strike the enemy with dread, as none can bear this their aspect so surprising and as it were quite infernal. for, in all battles the eyes are vanquished first.

beyond the lygians dwell the gothones, under the rule of a king; and thence held in subjection somewhat stricter than the other german nations, yet not so strict as to extinguish all their liberty. immediately adjoining are the rugians and lemovians upon the coast of the ocean, and of these several nations the characteristics are a round shield, a short sword and kingly government. next occur the communities of the suiones, situated in the ocean itself; and besides their strength in men and arms, very powerful at sea. the form of their vessels varies thus far from ours, that they have prows at each end, so as to be always ready to row to shore without turning nor are they moved by sails, nor on their sides have benches of oars placed, but the rowers ply here and there in all parts of the ship alike, as in some rivers is done, and change their oars from place to place, just as they shift their course hither or thither. to wealth also, amongst them, great veneration is paid, and thence a single ruler governs them, without all restriction of power, and exacting unlimited obedience. neither here, as amongst other nations of germany, are arms used indifferently by all, but shut up and warded under the care of a particular keeper, who in truth too is always a slave: since from all sudden invasions and attacks from their foes, the ocean protects them: besides that armed bands, when they are not employed, grow easily debauched and tumultuous. the truth is, it suits not the interest of an arbitrary prince, to trust the care and power of arms either with a nobleman or with a freeman, or indeed with any man above the condition of a slave.

beyond the suiones is another sea, one very heavy and almost void of agitation; and by it the whole globe is thought to be bounded and environed, for that the reflection of the sun, after his setting, continues till his rising, so bright as to darken the stars. to this, popular opinion has added, that the tumult also of his emerging from the sea is heard, that forms divine are then seen, as likewise the rays about his head. only thus far extend the limits of nature, if what fame says be true. upon the right of the suevian sea the aestyan nations reside, who use the same customs and attire with the suevians; their language more resembles that of britain. they worship the mother of the gods. as the characteristic of their national superstition, they wear the images of wild boars. this alone serves them for arms, this is the safeguard of all, and by this every worshipper of the goddess is secured even amidst his foes. rare amongst them is the use of weapons of iron, but frequent that of clubs. in producing of grain and the other fruits of the earth, they labour with more assiduity and patience than is suitable to the usual laziness of germans. nay, they even search the deep, and of all the rest are the only people who gather amber. they call it glasing, and find it amongst the shallows and upon the very shore. but, according to the ordinary incuriosity and ignorance of barbarians, they have neither learnt, nor do they inquire, what is its nature, or from what cause it is produced. in truth it lay long neglected amongst the other gross discharges of the sea; till from our luxury, it gained a name and value. to themselves it is of no use: they gather it rough, they expose it in pieces coarse and unpolished, and for it receive a price with wonder. you would however conceive it to be a liquor issuing from trees, for that in the transparent substance are often seen birds and other animals, such as at first stuck in the soft gum, and by it, as it hardened, became quite enclosed. i am apt to believe that, as in the recesses of the east are found woods and groves dropping frankincense and balms, so in the isles and continent of the west such gums are extracted by the force and proximity of the sun; at first liquid and flowing into the next sea, then thrown by the winds and waves upon the opposite shore. if you try the nature of amber by the application of fire, it kindles like a torch; and feeds a thick and unctuous flame very high scented, and presently becomes glutinous like pitch or rosin.

upon the suiones, border the people sitones; and, agreeing with them in all other things, differ from them in one, that here the sovereignty is exercised by a woman. so notoriously do they degenerate not only from a state of liberty, but even below a state of bondage. here end the territories of the suevians.

whether amongst the sarmatians or the germans i ought to account the peucinians, the venedians, and the fennians, is what i cannot determine; though the peucinians, whom some call basstarnians, speak the same language with the germans, use the same attire, build like them, and live like them, in that dirtiness and sloth so common to all. somewhat they are corrupted into the fashion of the sarmatians by the inter-marriages of the principal sort with that nation: from whence the venedians have derived very many of their customs and a great resemblance. for they are continually traversing and infesting with robberies all the forests and mountains lying between the peucinians and fennians. yet they are rather reckoned amongst the germans, for that they have fixed houses, and carry shields, and prefer travelling on foot, and excel in swiftness. usages these, all widely differing from those of the sarmatians, who live on horseback and dwell in waggons. in wonderful savageness live the nation of the fennians, and in beastly poverty, destitute of arms, of horses, and of homes; their food, the common herbs; their apparel, skins; their bed, the earth; their only hope in their arrows, which for want of iron they point with bones. their common support they have from the chase, women as well as men; for with these the former wander up and down, and crave a portion of the prey. nor other shelter have they even for their babes, against the violence of tempests and ravening beasts, than to cover them with the branches of trees twisted together; this a reception for the old men, and hither resort the young. such a condition they judge more happy than the painful occupation of cultivating the ground, than the labour of rearing houses, than the agitations of hope and fear attending the defence of their own property or the seizing that of others. secure against the designs of men, secure against the malignity of the gods, they have accomplished a thing of infinite difficulty; that to them nothing remains even to be wished.

what further accounts we have are fabulous: as that the hellusians and oxiones have the countenances and aspect of men, with the bodies and limbs of savage beasts. this, as a thing about which i have no certain information, i shall leave untouched.