after this disastrous termination of court life voltaire determined to try complete independence. permission to establish himself in france being refused, he purchased an estate near geneva. his residence here brought him into correspondence, at first amicable, with the most famous of her citizens, jean jacques rousseau. there was a natural incompatibility of temper which speedily led to a quarrel. both were sensitive, and rousseau could not bear even kindly-meant banter. on rousseau’s social contract voltaire said it so convinced him of the beauty of man in a state of nature that, after reading it, he ran round me room on all fours. his reply to rousseau’s rebuke for his pessimist poem on the earthquake of lisbon was the immortal candide, and rousseau’s revenge was to say, slightingly, that he had not read it. when rousseau thought fit to include voltaire in the imaginary machinations against him, with which he absurdly changed hume, voltaire wrote to d’alembert: “i have nothing to reproach myself with, save having thought and spoken too well of him.”
voltaire at first seems to have been captivated by the doctrine of pope’s essay on man. he, however, afterwards wrote: “those who exclaim that all is well are charlatans. shaftesbury, who first made the fable fashionable, was a very unhappy man. i have seen bolingbroke a prey to vexation and rage, and pope, whom he induced to put this sorry jest into verse, was as much to be pitied as any man i have ever known, misshapen in body, dissatisfied in mind, always ill, always a burden to himself, and harassed by a hundred enemies to his very last moment. give me, at least, the names of some happy men who will tell me 'all is well.’” his optimism got injured during his journey through life, and was completely shattered by the earthquake at lisbon in 1755. on this subject he produced a grave poem, notable for its confession of the difficult reconciling the evil of the world with the beneficence of god? the same subject was dealt with in grotesque fashion in candide, one of the wisest as well as one of the wittiest of works. a philosophy was never more triumphantly reasoned and ridiculed out of court than is optimism in candide. incident crowds on incident, argument jostles satire, illustration succeeds raillery, all to show the miseries of existence disprove this being the best of all possible worlds. at one moment we are forced to tears at contemplating the atrocities of inhumanity; the next we are forced to laugh at its absurdities. prudes may be shocked at some incidents. voltaire said he was not born to sing the praises of saints. he was himself no saint, but rather one of those sinners who had done the world more good than all its saints. but the influence of the work is profoundly good. it is purely humanitarian, war, persecution for religion, slavery, torture, and all forms of cruelty are made hateful by a recital of their facts; and all this is done in so charming, even flippant a manner, that we are laughing all the while we are most profoundly moved. schopenhauer and hartmann both enjoyed life, while voltaire was an invalid most of his days; but they never threw into their pessimism the gaiety of candide. and his peculiarity is, that he makes all man’s lower instincts ridiculous as well as detestable.
this character appears in all his work, but, as a fantastic tale, candide stands alone. it brings out voltaire’s most characteristic qualities: his keen eye for whimsicalities and weaknesses; his abhorrence of cruelty and iniquity in high places; his contempt for shams and absence of all veneration for the majesty of nonsensical custom. for mordant satire it is surpassed by gulliver's travels. but it is briefer; the touch is lighter, and instinct not with morose misanthropy, but hearty philanthropy. the characters are gross caricatures. was there ever so preposterous an absurdity as dr. pangloss? and the incidents are improbable. was ever so luckless a hero as candide? what a succession of misfortunes! candide travels the world in search of his lost beloved cunégonde, meeting war, the inquisition, torture, shipwreck, piracy, and slavery, with all their attendant horrors. even the earthquake of lisbon is brought in; yet with whimsical pertinacity, pangloss clings to his flimsy philosophy.
when he re-meets candide, who had left his tutor as dead, he thus relates his adventures: “but,” my dear pangloss, “how happens it that i see you again?” said candide. “it is true,” answered pangloss, “you saw me hanged; i ought properly to have been burnt; but, you remember, it rained in torrents when they were going to roast me. the storm was so violent they despaired of kindling the fire; so i was hanged, because they could do no better. a surgeon bought my body, carried it home, and dissected me. he made first a crucial incision from the navel to the neck. one could not have been more badly hanged than i. the executioner of the holy inquisition was a sub-deacon, and truly burnt people capitally, but, as for hanging, he was a novice; the cord was wet, and not slipping properly, the noose did not join—in short, i still continued to breathe. the crucial incision made me shriek so that my surgeon fell back, and, imagining it was the devil he was dissecting, ran away in mortal fear, tumbling downstairs in his fright. his wife, hearing the noise, flew from the next room, and saw me stretched upon the table with my crucial incision. still more terrified than her husband, she ran down also, and fell upon him. when they had a little recovered themselves, i heard her say to the surgeon, ‘my dear, how could you think of dissecting a heretic? don’t you know that the devil is always in them? i’ll run directly to a priest, to come and exorcise the evil spirit.’ i trembled from head to foot at hearing her talk in this manner, and exerted what little strength i had left to cry out, ‘have pity on me!’ at length, the portuguese barber took courage, sewed up my wound, and his wife even nursed me. i was upon my legs in about a fortnight. the barber got me a place as lacquey to a knight of malta, who was going to venice; but finding my master had no money to pay me my wages, i entered into the service of a venetian merchant, and went with him to constantinople. one day i took the fancy to enter a mosque, where i saw no one but an old iman and a very pretty young female devotee, who was saying her prayers. her neck was quite bare, and in her bosom she had a fine nosegay of tulips, roses, anemones, ranunculuses, hyacinths, and auriculas. she let fall her bouquet. i ran to take it up, and presented it to her with a bow. i was so long in replacing it, that the iman began to be angry, and, perceiving i was a christian, he cried out for help. they took me before the cadi, who ordered me to receive one hundred bastinadoes, and sent me to the galleys. we were continually whipt, and received twenty lashes a day, when the concatenation of sublunary events brought you on board our galley to ransom us from slavery.”
“well, my dear pangloss,” said candide to him, “now you have been hanged, dissected, whipped, and tugging at the oar, do you continue to think that everything in this world happens for the best?” “i have always abided by my first opinion,” replied pangloss; “for, after all, i am a philosopher; it would not become me to retract. leibnitz could not be wrong, and ‘pre-established harmony’ is, besides, the finest thing in the world, as well as a ‘plenum’ and the ‘materia subtilis’.”
when cunégonde is at last found, she is no longer beautiful—but sunburnt, blear-eyed, haggard, withered, and scrofulous. though ready to fulfil his promise, her brother, a baron whom candide has rescued from slavery, declares that sister of his shall never marry a person of less rank than a baron. the book is a mass of seeming extravagance, with a deep vein of gold beneath. all flows so smoothly, the reader fancies such fantastic nonsense could not only be easily written, but easily improved. yet when he notices how every sally and absurdity adds to the effect, how every lightest touch tells, he sees that only the most consummate wit and genius could thus deftly dissect a philosophy of the universe for the amusement of the multitude.
voltaire tried to save england from the judicial murder of admiral byng, who was sacrificed to national pride and political faction in 1757, yet how lightly he touches the history in a sentence: “dans ce pays ci il est bon de tuer de temps en temps un amiral pour encourager les autres.” the pride, pomp, and circumstance of glorious war had no charms for voltaire. he shows it in its true colors as multitudinous murder and rapine. religious intolerance and hypocrisy, court domination and intrigue, the evils attendant on idlers, soldiers and priests, are all sketched in lightest outline, and the reader of this fantastic story finds he has traversed the history of last century, seen it at its worst, and seen, too, the forces that tended to make it better, and is ready to exclaim: would we had another voltaire now!
the philosophy of candide is that of secularism. the world as we find it abounds in misery and suffering. if any being is responsible for it, his benevolence can only be vindicated by limiting his power, or his power credited by limiting his goodness. our part is simply to make the best of things and improve this world here and now. “work, then, without disputing; it is the only way to render life supportable.”
carlyle did much to impair the influence of voltaire in england. yet what is carlyle’s essential doctrine but “do the work nearest hand,” and what is this but a translation of the conclusion of candide: “il faut cultiver n?tre jardin”?
those who forget how far more true it is that man is an irrational animal than that he is a rational one, may wonder how voltaire, having in candide sapped the foundations of belief in an all-good god by a portrayal of the evils afflicting mankind, could yet remain a theist. the truth seems to be that voltaire had neither taste nor talents for metaphysics. in the ignorant philosopher voltaire seeks to answer spinoza, without fully understanding his monistic position. he appears to have remained a dualist or modern manichean—an opinion which james mill considered was the only theistic view consistent with the facts. writing to d’alembert on the 15th of august, 1767, voltaire says: “give my compliments to the devil, for it is he who governs the world.” it is curious that on the day he was writing these lines, one napoleon bonaparte had just entered upon the world.
voltaire appears to have been satisfied with the design argument as proving a deity, though he considered speculation as to the nature of deity useless. he showed the positivist spirit in his rejection of metaphysical subtleties. “when,” he writes, “we have well disputed over spirit and matter, we end ever by no advance. no philosopher has been able to raise by his own efforts the veil which nature has spread over the first principles of things.” again: “i do not know the quo modo, true. i prefer to stop short rather than to lose myself.” also: “philosophy consists in stopping where physics fail us. i observe the effects of nature, but i confess i know no more than you do about first principles.” but a deist he ever remained.
baron de gleichen, who visited him in 1757, relates that a young author, at his wits’ end for the means of living, knocked one day at the poet’s door, and to recommend himself said: “i am an apprentice atheist at your service.” voltaire replied: “i have the honor to be a master deist; but though our trades are opposed, i will give you some supper to-night and some work to-morrow. i wish to avail myself of your arms and not of your head.”
he thought both atheism and fanaticism inimical to society; but, said he, “the atheist, in his error, preserves reason, which cuts his claws, while those of the fanatic are sharpened in the incessant madness which afflicts him.”
voltaire seems to have been at bottom agnostic holding on to the narrow ledge of theism and afraid to drop.
he says: “for myself, i am sure of nothing. i believe that there is an intelligence, a creative power, a god. i express an opinion to-day; i doubt of it to-morrow; the day after i repudiate it. all honest philosophers have confessed to me, when they were warmed with wine, that the great being has not given to them one particle more evidence than to me.” he believed in the immortality of the soul, yet expresses himself dubiously, saying to madame du deffand that he knew a man who believed that when a bee died it ceased to hum. that man was himself.
on the appearance, however, in 1770 of the baron d’holbach’s system of nature—in which he was very considerably helped by diderot—voltaire took alarm at its openly pronounced atheism. “the book,” he wrote,
“has made all the philosophers execrable in the eyes of the king and his court. through this fatal work philosophy is lost for ever in the eyes of all magistrates and fathers of families.” he accordingly took in hand to combat its atheism, which he does in the article dieu in the philosophical dictionary, and in his history of jenni (johnny), a lad supposed to be led on a course of vice by atheism and reclaimed to virtue by the design argument. voltaire’s real attitude seems fairly expressed in his celebrated mot: “s’il n’y avait pas un dieu, il fraudrait l’inventer”—“if there was not a god it would be necessary to invent one,” which, morin remarks, was exactly what had been done. morley says: “it was not the truth of the theistic belief in itself that voltaire prized, but its supposed utility as an assistant to the police.”
