introduction—a scientific description of hair—chinese and japanese hair—chiffonier hair—waste hair—turned hair—combings—best quality hair—the hair market in brittany—dr. lindemann’s gregarine—the “chignon fungus”—cuttings.

oard-work,” in the fullest extent of its signification, means all that which is done by clever hairdressers and wig-makers in the workshop and at the work-table. it comprises the cleaning and preparing of hair for the articles intended to be made; weaving; sewing and knotting; the making of fronts, bands, chignons, curls and twists of various descriptions; scalp-making; ladies’ and gentlemen’s wig-making; and numerous other matters of detail in connection with the subject. that a treatise on this subject is required there cannot be a doubt, for while haircutters and shavers continue to increase, the clever worker at the board, to a certain extent at least, is gradually disappearing. 2this may be considered a bold assertion, but it is true nevertheless. let me give an illustration in support of this statement, and experienced men, doubtless, will coincide with my opinion.

it not unfrequently happens that when a youth has acquired a knowledge of men’s haircutting and shaving, he thinks himself tolerably clever and able to get his living. if he be well proportioned and possess a kindly disposition, such a youth is sure to obtain the favourable consideration of customers, and come to believe, perhaps, that he is on the road to competency, if not to fortune. by the time he arrives at nineteen or twenty years of age he most likely desires a change, and seeks another place, and as he doubtless will get “a rise,” some encouragement is given to his views by indiscreet acquaintances. numerous advertisements constantly appear for “a good haircutter and shaver, with a knowledge of board-work,” and the young man forthwith applies for the situation, and obtains it—the “knowledge of board-work” required being, not unfrequently, of a trivial and elementary character. and thus he goes on till opportunity offers for further advancement, or going into business, when he discovers the want of “technical instruction.” unfortunately, apprenticeship is thought to be “old-fashioned,” and a lad now-a-days thinks he can acquire as much trade knowledge in four years as his master did in seven. but such an idea is, unmistakably, “a 3delusion and a snare,” and thus it comes to pass that many men seek to acquire at thirty what they should have learnt ten or a dozen years before. the foregoing remarks would apply equally as well to other trades, and thoughtful men regard this aspect of affairs with some degree of anxiety and apprehension, hence the desire for “technical instruction,” promoted as it is by some of the city guilds.

i have reason to know that the book entitled “lessons in hairdressing” is highly appreciated by many, both employers and employed, and i trust that “board-work,” which i shall endeavour to make as complete as possible, will be equally as acceptable to the trade. the letterpress descriptions will be given in a comprehensive manner, and where the intricacies are somewhat complicated or obscure, well-drawn illustrations will accompany the text. to those who wish to take advantage of my labours, i will briefly say that no work, however well written and carefully put together, will impart ability without practice. practice must be diligently pursued, and thoughtfully brought to bear on the instruction given, and a satisfactory result is sure to follow. as well might a person, after reading sundry works on music, and becoming acquainted with the significations contained therein, expect proficiency on a musical instrument, as for any one to think of making a wig after reading “how it’s done.” proficiency in any art or trade can only be acquired by application and hard work. the information 4it will be my pleasure to afford, coupled with the industry and perseverance of the student, must produce one result, that being of an eminently satisfactory character.

hair is the substance with which my readers have to deal, and the subject i have to write about. hair—the theme of poets’ song, and the ambition of all true artists to well depict on canvas. the crowning glory of woman is a fine head of hair, and baldness only becomes age. were a person to ask, “what is hair?” probably nineteen people out of every twenty would consider him an ignoramus, but only let the querist press for a logical reply, and he, in turn, might regard others in a similar light. those employed in manufacturing trades ought surely to know some particulars concerning the chief material used in the business in which they are engaged. unless this knowledge be imparted to the apprentice or journeyman, technical instruction in any trade cannot be complete. physicians and surgeons undergo a long and anxious training before they are qualified to deal with the numerous ills “that flesh is heir to.” dentists, aurists, ophthalmists, chemists, lawyers, and many others have to master the details of their respective occupations, before they are regarded as competent men.

it is somewhat surprising to witness the intelligence and knowledge brought to bear upon sundry manufactures, and a few visits to some of our workshops and hives of industry in london and 5the provinces, would prove a source of pleasure and instruction. i maintain that a scientific as well as practical knowledge of the materials used in any occupation, is essential to the welfare of the clever workman; therefore, before proceeding farther with the object i have in view, i consider it necessary to answer the question—what is hair?

hair is distributed over all parts of the body, with the exception of the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, and the lips. it grows abundantly upon the head and face, and sparingly upon the trunk and limbs, and according to its location, differences are observed in shape, size, colour, and structure. with reference to the structure, i may observe that a hair has three different modifications of tissue, viz., its centre, which constitutes the medulla, or pith, and is a loose cellulated tissue; that which encloses it forming a greater portion of a human hair called a fibrous tissue; and the outer sheath, cuticle or external surface, which is of a horny description. hairs are somewhat cylindrical in shape, but not exactly round, and curly or waved hair is rather flat. sometimes a hair is described as being hollow, but this is incorrect, for it not only has a cortical (or external) structure, but a medullary (or internal) substance. the first is similar to that which may be described as the bark of a tree, and the second to the pith of vegetable substances, the internal portions of feathers, or to the marrow 6in bones. but it is right to observe that when a hair is viewed under a microscope with a low power it appears dark at the sides and bright in the middle, and that appearance would convey the idea of hollowness. this impression prevailed for a length of time, and justified the humble barber in stating that “the ’air of the ’ed was a ’ollow tube.” he simply reiterated a statement which other, and probably wiser, heads had given currency to. when the cortical structure of the human hair is examined it is found to be jagged like the teeth of a saw, and it is owing to this imbricated arrangement that hair feels rough to the touch when the hand is passed from point to root. the serrated appearance of hair is produced through the outer layer, or cuticle, being composed of flattened cells, or scales, which overlap each other like the scales of fishes, only they are not so regularly placed. the medulla, also, consists of a number of cells, which can be seen in hair that has been steeped for a time in soda or potash. these ceils are found to be angular or rounded, and if the immersion has not been too prolonged, will exhibit a nucleus, and one or more globules, or granules of fat. the medulla forms a dark line passing along the centre of the hair, and occupies about a fourth or a fifth of its thickness. the medullary line is absent in infants’ hair, and in very fine light hair; it is present in strong hair, and is not difficult 7to trace in white or grey hair. dr. beigel observes, that “we may drive out the air contained in the central tube—as the medullary has likewise been called—and see it re-enter again under the microscope. turpentine penetrates all parts of the hair which are filled by air, but its action is slow and requires some time. if we put, therefore, a hair into turpentine, and allow it to remain therein about twenty-four hours, and view it by the microscope, we find the central tube, which was black before being acted upon by turpentine, light,—perfectly transparent. but if we expose the hair again to a high temperature, the turpentine evaporates, and is replaced by air, consequently the central tube assumes its dark appearance again.” it is said that “nature abhors a vacuum,” and, it will perhaps be thought that the barber’s description of a hair was not so very far removed from the truth after all.

this description of hair is extracted from a lecture which i delivered to the members of the british hairdressers’ academy and their friends, at the rooms, new bond street, a few years ago, and the importance of a correct knowledge of this branch of the subject will be apparent before my book is ended.

every hairdresser knows that if his work is to be good, he must use only hair of the best quality in his business; chinese hair, japanese hair, “chiffonier” hair, “waste” hair, “combings,” 8“root and point” hair, or “turned” hair, however cleverly it may be treated to produce fineness (being afterwards dyed perhaps to impart the desired shade or colour), can only bring forth one result, and that of an unsatisfactory character. competition, and the desire for cheapness, fostered as it is by the encroachments of other trades, all tend to the manufacture of goods “to sell,” regardless of any other consideration; and the introduction of inferior material and workmanship, might thus be accounted for.

the study of hair, and the condition it should be in when made up and offered for sale, is of such importance that i consider some further remarks on the subject necessary. “if a thing is worth doing at all it is worth doing well;” therefore i address myself to those who take an interest in the business and desire to improve it, more than i do to persons who vend almost anything “for a consideration.” allusion has been made to various qualities of human hair, and i refer to them again for the purpose of pointing out what should be avoided by respectable and reputable tradesmen. “chinese” and “japanese” hair is coarse, strong and abundant, and unsuited to the english people; but it can be treated so as to make it passable amongst persons of “economic” proclivities. one thing is certain, and that is, chinese hair finds its way into the market, for in 1872 no less than 100,000 lbs. of human hair was received at 9marseilles, the principal portion of which came from the celestial empire.

“paris owns,” says mr. p. l. simmonds, in his excellent book on “waste products and undeveloped substances,” “among its street curiosities, a race as distinct from the elements of social life as the roving gipsies who have clung together and run over europe for centuries. consequently, its manners widely differ from those of the common run of mankind. these heteroclites are a species of night-birds of the human race; everything about them reminds you of dark shades and fantastic silhouettes; they sleep at daytime, and spring out of the earth when twilight sets; no one could say whence they come and whither they go.... they move about the deserted streets like a horde of phantoms; the lanterns they hold shine dimly and fluctuate to and fro in essentially supernatural zigzags. the chiffonier has a basket strapped to his shoulders; he creeps along the asphalte like a wolf in a sheepfold; whoever ignores his attributions would think him bent on grievous mischief; he holds an iron hook, and stops at every heap of rubbish. parisians are still in the habit of accumulating their refuse before their doors. the iron hook goes to work busily in the cabbage-leaf, rag, and broken-glass hillocks, while the light of the lantern shows the basket-owner what is worth taking, and then the hook transfers the rubbish to the basket over the 10man’s shoulder.” among the hundred and one things which these people find is “waste,” or “chiffonier” hair: and regarding this i will make a quotation from another reliable source.

m. alphonse bouchard, writing on the subject in the hairdressers’ chronicle, in the year 1873, and at a time when hair was scarce in consequence of the then prevailing fashion, says:—

“the hair that has fallen off is carefully collected by men who make this work their special business. they despise that which their brethren of the rag eagerly search for. bones, rags of every description, fragments of crystal, broken glass, old iron, old newspapers, all these are neglected and despised by these specials. see them bent over a pile of rubbish, which often contains little else but cabbage refuse and a few broken corks. they bend over it and kneel over it as intently as if they were looking for the philosopher’s stone, when suddenly we see them draw from the midst the little balls of hair which nearly every woman makes of the hair-combings....

“but let us follow m. denizet, the author of a remarkable work on ‘waste hair,’ in these developments,” continues m. bouchard. “this writer tells us that the plaits or small chignons, and which are consequently cheap, weigh from 60 to 80 grammes, and that in every one of them there is contained hair from more than two hundred persons. the following is their origin and 11manufacture. in the issues of the toilet of these two hundred women of all ages and stations, the hair of the middle-class woman is first observed. these women are in the habit of rolling the combings over their fingers, then putting them into a small piece of paper, so that they do not fly away, and this hair is found in the sweepings of the house.... in the state in which the hair leaves the bag of the collector it seems good for nothing. people in general would not like to touch it, and yet of this refuse the cheap postiches are made which adorn the heads of persons who will not pay the price of hair cut off from the head.”

in speaking of the several operations which this hair has to go through, my esteemed parisian correspondent quotes m. denizet almost verbatim.

“the waste, seemingly without value, is sold at six francs a kilogramme to wholesale dealers, who sell it again, just as it was purchased, at nine francs, to small manufacturers, who work it, and then it is sold to certain hair-merchants, who in their turn send it to small hairdressers, both at home and abroad. the work of the small manufacturer consists in five principal operations, which are:—1. the cleansing.—the hair is rolled and twisted about in sawdust to free it from dirt, dust, and grease. it is then opened by hand. 2. the combing.—the hair having been well disentangled, stretched, cleaned, and freed from grease, by means of black soap or certain chemical substances, 12is dried, and then combed in large cards with iron points, the same as are used for mattress-wool; this operation is done very carefully, to prevent the hair from being broken. 3. turning.[1]—starting upon the principle that the hair is a conical tube, which tapers off from the root to the point, a piece of hair of the thickness of a finger is rolled forwards and backwards between the hands. the piece elongates, the hair going in different directions, according as the root or point is situated. they are then easily separated, and put once again root to root and point to point, and this is the reason why it is called ‘turned hair.’ 4. classing.—there are only three lengths made of this hair, that which is used for plaits, for chignons of all kinds, and for men’s wigs. the refuse from these four operations is about half of the whole quantity in weight, and is good for nothing. 5. picking the colour.—this work requires the most patience, and is generally performed by women. it consists in dividing the hair according to colours. as there are seven principal colours and three lengths, each packet is divided into twenty-one portions. the shades are white, grey, black, brown, chestnut, blonde, and red. the lengths vary from twenty centimetres to seventy centimetres. having passed through these different operations, the hair is ready for use in postiches.”

from about this time, then, “root and point” 13hair, “turned” hair, and so forth came into requisition, and english “combings” followed as a matter of course. nowadays ladies save the “waste” hair which has been removed by the action of comb and brush, and when the mass has assumed somewhat large proportions it is taken to a hairdresser’s to be made up, and emanates therefrom in the shape of a plait, twist, &c. to show that i am not alone in regarding the use of this inferior hair with aversion, i will quote the following from the american hairdresser and perfumer:—

“this fact alone, namely, the general and almost universal use of the filthy and unwieldy substitutes for first quality cut hair, known as ‘italian,’ ‘refined china,’ ‘unrefined china,’ ‘georgia’ (refined china under another name), and all the grades of ‘second’ and lower qualities, all this has done more towards disgusting our better class of people (those who have the means at command) with wearing false hair than any prevailing style or notion could have done.”

there is much truth in this, and i commend the further consideration of the subject to the serious attention of all who desire to advance and benefit the trade.

having given a description of hair, and spoken disapprovingly of the commoner sorts, i purpose considering the better qualities before dealing with more practical details. if the maker of an article wishes his work to be of a superior description 14he must necessarily confine himself to the use of good materials, and the fine quality of the hair used is of the greatest importance. i will observe that hair should always be cut from the head, for then it is in good condition and very different to the “dead” hair which is thrown off daily by most people, and is now well known under the common appellation of “combings.” hair of the best description is obtained from france and italy, whence come sundry shades of black and brown. the first-named country, as well as germany and sweden, supplies the market with brown, light, flaxen, and red hair, while grey pieces are to be found in most parcels, consequently its source may be described as universal. there are regular “hair-harvests,” and agents or collectors travel from place to place at certain times, for the purpose of obtaining the hair of peasant-girls in exchange for money, trinkets, or other articles of personal adornment. mr. francis trollope, in his “summer in brittany,” gives an amusing as well as interesting account of what he observed at a fair in collenée, and its relation here will be appropriate. he says:—“what surprised me more than all, by the singularity and novelty of the thing, were the operations of the dealers in hair. in various parts of the motley crowd there were three or four purchasers of this commodity, who travel the country for the purpose of attending the fairs and buying the tresses of the peasant-girls. they have particularly 15fine hair, and frequently in the greatest abundance. i should have thought that female vanity would have effectually prevented such a traffic as this being carried to any extent; but there seemed to be no difficulty in finding beautiful heads of hair perfectly willing to sell. we saw several girls sheared, one after the other, like sheep, and as many more standing ready for the shears, with their caps in their hands, and their long hair combed out and hanging down to their waists. some of the operators were men, and some women. by the side of the dealer was placed a large basket, into which every successive crop of hair, tied up into a wisp, was thrown. no doubt the reason of their indifference to their tresses on the part of the fair bretonnes is to be found in the invariable mode which covers every head, from childhood upwards, with close caps, which entirely prevent any part of the hair from being seen, and, of course, as totally conceal the want of it. the money given for the hair is about twenty sous, or else a gaudy cotton handkerchief; they net immense profits by their trips through the country.” this hair is, as i am informed, the finest and most silken black hair that can be procured.

preparing hair requires careful manipulation, for unless it be properly cleaned and drawn off into the required lengths, the particular work in hand stands a chance of being spoiled. only fancy making a silk or skin parting with hair that 16has been imperfectly cleaned; the result can easily be imagined; or a sensitive lady’s surprise and disgust should she discover a “nit” upon her torsade or plait.

while mentioning this, i cannot help calling to mind the exaggerated and untruthful statements which were made some years ago in reference to dr. lindemann’s alleged discovery of “gregarines” upon false hair, and their rapid procreation. the effect produced was most prejudicial to hairdressers, until, after a few weeks had elapsed, it came to be regarded as “one of those things which no fella could understand.” let me here observe that i have not seen a gregarine, neither have i been able to procure one from the source indicated by the learned russian professor, nor could i ever meet with a scientific gentleman who had a specimen of the kind in his possession. indeed, i might go a little farther, and say that i have been unable to discover any one who has even seen a gregarine, although the “micrographic dictionary” informs me that they are to be obtained from about eighty different sources. such, then, is their insignificant character and appearance when viewed under a powerful glass. this scare was soon followed by the so-called “chignon fungus,” which brought forth a most interesting disquisition upon the subject by dr. tilbury fox, at one of the learned societies; but the fungoid growth that was found upon a particular piece of hair had nothing whatever to do with a chignon, as an 17examination of a portion of the same hair now in my possession would readily prove.

the good condition of hair is taken into consideration by professional hair merchants, for their very success in business depends on the unmistakably clean and glossy appearance of the article in which they deal. i would urge, therefore, all hairdressers who carry on a respectable trade, and are desirous of improving it, to purchase hair of first-rate quality only, and only to buy it of those who study to well prepare it for their use. they should avoid, if possible, having anything to do with the common rubbish which now and again finds its way into the market, and will thus be able to give a good article for a fair and remunerative price. it may be said, however, that all in the hairdressing profession are not able to go or send to some dep?t in the vicinity for every little requirement; neither is it convenient for them to keep in stock hair of every shade or length. besides, they may have a quantity of “cuttings” (not “combings,” mark you!) which should be utilised and, after careful treatment, made up for sale. it is, then, to such tradesmen that i desire to speak, and hope my remarks will be found useful in the course of their business career.