the north-eastern quarter of the continent of africa is drained and watered by the nile. among and about the headstreams and tributaries of this mighty river lie the wide and fertile provinces of the egyptian soudan. situated in the very centre of the land, these remote regions are on every side divided from the seas by five hundred miles of mountain, swamp, or desert. the great river is their only means of growth, their only channel of progress. it is by the nile alone that their commerce can reach the outer markets, or european civilisation can penetrate the inner darkness. the soudan is joined to egypt by the nile, as a diver is connected with the surface by his air-pipe. without it there is only suffocation. aut nilus, aut nihil!

the town of khartoum, at the confluence of the blue and white niles, is the point on which the trade of the south must inevitably converge. it is the great spout through which the merchandise collected from a wide area streams northwards to the mediterranean shore. it marks the extreme northern limit of the fertile soudan. between khartoum and assuan the river flows for twelve hundred miles through deserts of surpassing desolation. at last the wilderness recedes and the living world broadens out again into egypt and the delta. it is with events that have occurred in the intervening waste that these pages are concerned.

the real soudan, known to the statesman and the explorer, lies far to the south—moist, undulating, and exuberant. but there is another soudan, which some mistake for the true, whose solitudes oppress the nile from the egyptian frontier to omdurman. this is the soudan of the soldier. destitute of wealth or future, it is rich in history. the names of its squalid villages are familiar to distant and enlightened peoples. the barrenness of its scenery has been drawn by skilful pen and pencil. its ample deserts have tasted the blood of brave men. its hot, black rocks have witnessed famous tragedies. it is the scene of the war.

this great tract, which may conveniently be called 'the military soudan,' stretches with apparent indefiniteness over the face of the continent. level plains of smooth sand—a little rosier than buff, a little paler than salmon—are interrupted only by occasional peaks of rock—black, stark, and shapeless. rainless storms dance tirelessly over the hot, crisp surface of the ground. the fine sand, driven by the wind, gathers into deep drifts, and silts among the dark rocks of the hills, exactly as snow hangs about an alpine summit; only it is a fiery snow, such as might fall in hell. the earth burns with the quenchless thirst of ages, and in the steel-blue sky scarcely a cloud obstructs the unrelenting triumph of the sun.

through the desert flows the river—a thread of blue silk drawn across an enormous brown drugget; and even this thread is brown for half the year. where the water laps the sand and soaks into the banks there grows an avenue of vegetation which seems very beautiful and luxuriant by contrast with what lies beyond. the nile, through all the three thousand miles of its course vital to everything that lives beside it, is never so precious as here. the traveller clings to the strong river as to an old friend, staunch in the hour of need. all the world blazes, but here is shade. the deserts are hot, but the nile is cool. the land is parched, but here is abundant water. the picture painted in burnt sienna is relieved by a grateful flash of green.

yet he who had not seen the desert or felt the sun heavily on his shoulders would hardly admire the fertility of the riparian scrub. unnourishing reeds and grasses grow rank and coarse from the water's edge. the dark, rotten soil between the tussocks is cracked and granulated by the drying up of the annual flood. the character of the vegetation is inhospitable. thorn-bushes, bristling like hedgehogs and thriving arrogantly, everywhere predominate and with their prickly tangles obstruct or forbid the path. only the palms by the brink are kindly, and men journeying along the nile must look often towards their bushy tops, where among the spreading foliage the red and yellow glint of date clusters proclaims the ripening of a generous crop, and protests that nature is not always mischievous and cruel.

the banks of the nile, except by contrast with the desert, display an abundance of barrenness. their characteristic is monotony. their attraction is their sadness. yet there is one hour when all is changed. just before the sun sets towards the western cliffs a delicious flush brightens and enlivens the landscape. it is as though some titanic artist in an hour of inspiration were retouching the picture, painting in dark purple shadows among the rocks, strengthening the lights on the sands, gilding and beautifying everything, and making the whole scene live. the river, whose windings make it look like a lake, turns from muddy brown to silver-grey. the sky from a dull blue deepens into violet in the west. everything under that magic touch becomes vivid and alive. and then the sun sinks altogether behind the rocks, the colors fade out of the sky, the flush off the sands, and gradually everything darkens and grows grey—like a man's cheek when he is bleeding to death. we are left sad and sorrowful in the dark, until the stars light up and remind us that there is always something beyond.

in a land whose beauty is the beauty of a moment, whose face is desolate, and whose character is strangely stern, the curse of war was hardly needed to produce a melancholy effect. why should there be caustic plants where everything is hot and burning? in deserts where thirst is enthroned, and where the rocks and sand appeal to a pitiless sky for moisture, it was a savage trick to add the mockery of mirage.

the area multiplies the desolation. there is life only by the nile. if a man were to leave the river, he might journey westward and find no human habitation, nor the smoke of a cooking fire, except the lonely tent of a kabbabish arab or the encampment of a trader's caravan, till he reached the coast-line of america. or he might go east and find nothing but sand and sea and sun until bombay rose above the horizon. the thread of fresh water is itself solitary in regions where all living things lack company.

in the account of the river war the nile is naturally supreme. it is the great melody that recurs throughout the whole opera. the general purposing military operations, the statesman who would decide upon grave policies, and the reader desirous of studying the course and results of either, must think of the nile. it is the life of the lands through which it flows. it is the cause of the war: the means by which we fight; the end at which we aim. imagination should paint the river through every page in the story. it glitters between the palm-trees during the actions. it is the explanation of nearly every military movement. by its banks the armies camp at night. backed or flanked on its unfordable stream they offer or accept battle by day. to its brink, morning and evening, long lines of camels, horses, mules, and slaughter cattle hurry eagerly. emir and dervish, officer and soldier, friend and foe, kneel alike to this god of ancient egypt and draw each day their daily water in goatskin or canteen. without the river none would have started. without it none might have continued. without it none could ever have returned.

all who journey on the nile, whether in commerce or war, will pay their tribute of respect and gratitude; for the great river has befriended all races and every age. through all the centuries it has performed the annual miracle of its flood. every year when the rains fall and the mountain snows of central africa begin to melt, the head-streams become torrents and the great lakes are filled to the brim. a vast expanse of low, swampy lands, crossed by secondary channels and flooded for many miles, regulates the flow, and by a sponge-like action prevents the excess of one year from causing the deficiency of the next. far away in egypt, prince, priest, and peasant look southwards with anxious attention for the fluctuating yet certain rise. gradually the flood begins. the bahr-el-ghazal from a channel of stagnant pools and marshes becomes a broad and navigable stream. the sobat and the atbara from dry watercourses with occasional pools, in which the fish and crocodiles are crowded, turn to rushing rivers. but all this is remote from egypt. after its confluence with the atbara no drop of water reaches the nile, and it flows for seven hundred miles through the sands or rushes in cataracts among the rocks of the nubian desert. nevertheless, in spite of the tremendous diminution in volume caused by the dryness of the earth and air and the heat of the sun—all of which drink greedily—the river below assuan is sufficiently great to supply nine millions of people with as much water as their utmost science and energies can draw, and yet to pour into the mediterranean a low-water surplus current of 61,500 cubic feet per second. nor is its water its only gift. as the nile rises its complexion is changed. the clear blue river becomes thick and red, laden with the magic mud that can raise cities from the desert sand and make the wilderness a garden. the geographer may still in the arrogance of science describe the nile as 'a great, steady-flowing river, fed by the rains of the tropics, controlled by the existence of a vast head reservoir and several areas of repose, and annually flooded by the accession of a great body of water with which its eastern tributaries are flushed' [encyclopaedia britannica]; but all who have drunk deeply of its soft yet fateful waters—fateful, since they give both life and death—will understand why the old egyptians worshipped the river, nor will they even in modern days easily dissociate from their minds a feeling of mystic reverence.

south of khartoum and of 'the military soudan' the land becomes more fruitful. the tributaries of the nile multiply the areas of riparian fertility. a considerable rainfall, increasing as the equator is approached, enables the intervening spaces to support vegetation and consequently human life. the greater part of the country is feverish and unhealthy, nor can europeans long sustain the attacks of its climate. nevertheless it is by no means valueless. on the east the province of sennar used to produce abundant grain, and might easily produce no less abundant cotton. westward the vast territories of kordofan and darfur afford grazing-grounds to a multitude of cattle, and give means of livelihood to great numbers of baggara or cow-herd arabs, who may also pursue with activity and stratagem the fleet giraffe and the still fleeter ostrich. to the south-east lies bahr-el-ghazal, a great tract of country occupied by dense woods and plentifully watered. further south and nearer the equator the forests and marshes become exuberant with tropical growths, and the whole face of the land is moist and green. amid groves of gigantic trees and through plains of high waving grass the stately elephant roams in herds which occasionally number four hundred, hardly ever disturbed by a well-armed hunter. the ivory of their tusks constitutes the wealth of the equatorial province. so greatly they abound that emin pasha is provoked to complain of a pest of these valuable pachyderms [life of emin pasha, vol.i chapter ix.]: and although they are only assailed by the natives with spear and gun, no less than twelve thousand hundredweight of ivory has been exported in a single year [ibid.] all other kinds of large beasts known to man inhabit these obscure retreats. the fierce rhinoceros crashes through the undergrowth. among the reeds of melancholy swamps huge hippopotami, crocodiles, and buffaloes prosper and increase. antelope of every known and many unclassified species; serpents of peculiar venom; countless millions of birds, butterflies, and beetles are among the offspring of prolific nature. and the daring sportsman who should survive his expedition would not fail to add to the achievements of science and the extent of natural history as well as to his own reputation.

the human inhabitants of the soudan would not, but for their vices and misfortunes, be disproportioned in numbers to the fauna or less happy. war, slavery, and oppression have, however, afflicted them until the total population of the whole country does not exceed at the most liberal estimate three million souls. the huge area contains many differences of climate and conditions, and these have produced peculiar and diverse breeds of men. the soudanese are of many tribes, but two main races can be clearly distinguished: the aboriginal natives, and the arab settlers. the indigenous inhabitants of the country were negroes as black as coal. strong, virile, and simple-minded savages, they lived as we may imagine prehistoric men—hunting, fighting, marrying, and dying, with no ideas beyond the gratification of their physical desires, and no fears save those engendered by ghosts, witchcraft, the worship of ancestors, and other forms of superstition common among peoples of low development. they displayed the virtues of barbarism. they were brave and honest. the smallness of their intelligence excused the degradation of their habits. their ignorance secured their innocence. yet their eulogy must be short, for though their customs, language, and appearance vary with the districts they inhabit and the subdivisions to which they belong, the history of all is a confused legend of strife and misery, their natures are uniformly cruel and thriftless, and their condition is one of equal squalor and want.

although the negroes are the more numerous, the arabs exceed in power. the bravery of the aboriginals is outweighed by the intelligence of the invaders and their superior force of character. during the second century of the mohammedan era, when the inhabitants of arabia went forth to conquer the world, one adventurous army struck south. the first pioneers were followed at intervals by continual immigrations of arabs not only from arabia but also across the deserts from egypt and marocco. the element thus introduced has spread and is spreading throughout the soudan, as water soaks into a dry sponge. the aboriginals absorbed the invaders they could not repel. the stronger race imposed its customs and language on the negroes. the vigour of their blood sensibly altered the facial appearance of the soudanese. for more than a thousand years the influence of mohammedanism, which appears to possess a strange fascination for negroid races, has been permeating the soudan, and, although ignorance and natural obstacles impede the progress of new ideas, the whole of the black race is gradually adopting the new religion and developing arab characteristics. in the districts of the north, where the original invaders settled, the evolution is complete, and the arabs of the soudan are a race formed by the interbreeding of negro and arab, and yet distinct from both. in the more remote and inaccessible regions which lie to the south and west the negro race remains as yet unchanged by the arab influence. and between these extremes every degree of mixture is to be found. in some tribes pure arabic is spoken, and prior to the rise of the mahdi the orthodox moslem faith was practised. in others arabic has merely modified the ancient dialects, and the mohammedan religion has been adapted to the older superstitions; but although the gap between the arab-negro and the negro-pure is thus filled by every intermediate blend, the two races were at an early date quite distinct.

the qualities of mongrels are rarely admirable, and the mixture of the arab and negro types has produced a debased and cruel breed, more shocking because they are more intelligent than the primitive savages. the stronger race soon began to prey upon the simple aboriginals; some of the arab tribes were camel-breeders; some were goat-herds; some were baggaras or cow-herds. but all, without exception, were hunters of men. to the great slave-market at jedda a continual stream of negro captives has flowed for hundreds of years. the invention of gunpowder and the adoption by the arabs of firearms facilitated the traffic by placing the ignorant negroes at a further disadvantage. thus the situation in the soudan for several centuries may be summed up as follows: the dominant race of arab invaders was unceasingly spreading its blood, religion, customs, and language among the black aboriginal population, and at the same time it harried and enslaved them.

the state of society that arose out of this may be easily imagined. the warlike arab tribes fought and brawled among themselves in ceaseless feud and strife. the negroes trembled in apprehension of capture, or rose locally against their oppressors. occasionally an important sheikh would effect the combination of many tribes, and a kingdom came into existence—a community consisting of a military class armed with guns and of multitudes of slaves, at once their servants and their merchandise, and sometimes trained as soldiers. the dominion might prosper viciously till it was overthrown by some more powerful league.

all this was unheeded by the outer world, from which the soudan is separated by the deserts, and it seemed that the slow, painful course of development would be unaided and uninterrupted. but at last the populations of europe changed. another civilisation reared itself above the ruins of roman triumph and mohammedan aspiration—a civilisation more powerful, more glorious, but no less aggressive. the impulse of conquest which hurried the french and english to canada and the indies, which sent the dutch to the cape and the spaniards to peru, spread to africa and led the egyptians to the soudan. in the year 1819 mohammed ali, availing himself of the disorders alike as an excuse and an opportunity, sent his son ismail up the nile with a great army. the arab tribes, torn by dissension, exhausted by thirty years of general war, and no longer inspired by their neglected religion, offered a weak resistance. their slaves, having known the worst of life, were apathetic. the black aboriginals were silent and afraid. the whole vast territory was conquered with very little fighting, and the victorious army, leaving garrisons, returned in triumph to the delta.

what enterprise that an enlightened community may attempt is more noble and more profitable than the reclamation from barbarism of fertile regions and large populations? to give peace to warring tribes, to administer justice where all was violence, to strike the chains off the slave, to draw the richness from the soil, to plant the earliest seeds of commerce and learning, to increase in whole peoples their capacities for pleasure and diminish their chances of pain—what more beautiful ideal or more valuable reward can inspire human effort? the act is virtuous, the exercise invigorating, and the result often extremely profitable. yet as the mind turns from the wonderful cloudland of aspiration to the ugly scaffolding of attempt and achievement, a succession of opposite ideas arises. industrious races are displayed stinted and starved for the sake of an expensive imperialism which they can only enjoy if they are well fed. wild peoples, ignorant of their barbarism, callous of suffering, careless of life but tenacious of liberty, are seen to resist with fury the philanthropic invaders, and to perish in thousands before they are convinced of their mistake. the inevitable gap between conquest and dominion becomes filled with the figures of the greedy trader, the inopportune missionary, the ambitious soldier, and the lying speculator, who disquiet the minds of the conquered and excite the sordid appetites of the conquerors. and as the eye of thought rests on these sinister features, it hardly seems possible for us to believe that any fair prospect is approached by so foul a path.

from 1819 to 1883 egypt ruled the soudan. her rule was not kindly, wise, or profitable. its aim was to exploit, not to improve the local population. the miseries of the people were aggravated rather than lessened: but they were concealed. for the rough injustice of the sword there were substituted the intricacies of corruption and bribery. violence and plunder were more hideous, since they were cloaked with legality and armed with authority. the land was undeveloped and poor. it barely sustained its inhabitants. the additional burden of a considerable foreign garrison and a crowd of rapacious officials increased the severity of the economic conditions. scarcity was frequent. famines were periodical. corrupt and incapable governors-general succeeded each other at khartoum with bewildering rapidity. the constant changes, while they prevented the continuity of any wise policy, did not interrupt the misrule. with hardly any exceptions, the pashas were consistent in oppression. the success of their administration was measured by the ministries in egypt by the amount of money they could extort from the natives; among the officials in the soudan, by the number of useless offices they could create. there were a few bright examples of honest men, but these, by providing a contrast, only increased the discontents.

the rule of egypt was iniquitous: yet it preserved the magnificent appearance of imperial dominion. the egyptian pro-consul lived in state at the confluence of the niles. the representatives of foreign powers established themselves in the city. the trade of the south converged upon khartoum. thither the subordinate governors, beys and mudirs, repaired at intervals to report the state of their provinces and to receive instructions. thither were sent the ivory of equatoria, the ostrich feathers of kordofan, gum from darfur, grain from sennar, and taxes collected from all the regions. strange beasts, entrapped in the swamps and forests, passed through the capital on their journey to cairo and europe. complex and imposing reports of revenue and expenditure were annually compiled. an elaborate and dignified correspondence was maintained between egypt and its great dependency. the casual observer, astonished at the unusual capacity for government displayed by an oriental people, was tempted to accept the famous assertion which nubar pasha put into the mouth of the khedive ismail: 'we are no longer in africa, but in europe.' yet all was a hateful sham ['the government of the egyptians in these far-off countries is nothing else but one of brigandage of the very worst description.'—colonel gordon in central africa, april 11, 1879.] the arbitrary and excessive taxes were collected only at the point of the bayonet. if a petty chief fell into arrears, his neighbours were raised against him. if an arab tribe were recalcitrant, a military expedition was despatched. moreover, the ability of the arabs to pay depended on their success as slave-hunters. when there had been a good catch, the revenue profited. the egyptian government had joined the international league against the slave trade. they combined, however, indirectly but deliberately, to make money out of it. [egypt, no.11, 1883.]

in the miserable, harassing warfare that accompanied the collection of taxes the viceregal commanders gained more from fraud than force. no subterfuge, no treachery, was too mean for them to adopt: no oath or treaty was too sacred for them to break. their methods were cruel, and if honour did not impede the achievement, mercy did not restrict the effects of their inglorious successes; and the effete administrators delighted to order their timid soldiery to carry out the most savage executions. the political methods and social style of the governors-general were imitated more or less exactly by the subordinate officials according to their degree in the provinces. since they were completely hidden from the eye of civilisation, they enjoyed a greater licence in their administration. as their education was inferior, so their habits became more gross. meanwhile the volcano on which they disported themselves was ominously silent. the arab tribes obeyed, and the black population cowered.

the authority of a tyrannical government was supported by the presence of a worthless army. nearly forty thousand men were distributed among eight main and numerous minor garrisons. isolated in a roadless country by enormous distances and natural obstacles, and living in the midst of large savage populations of fanatical character and warlike habits, whose exasperation was yearly growing with their miseries, the viceregal forces might depend for their safety only on the skill of their officers, the excellence of their discipline, and the superiority of their weapons. but the egyptian officers were at that time distinguished for nothing but their public incapacity and private misbehaviour. the evil reputation of the soudan and its climate deterred the more educated or more wealthy from serving in such distant regions, and none went south who could avoid it. the army which the khedives maintained in the delta was, judged by european standards, only a rabble. it was badly trained, rarely paid, and very cowardly; and the scum of the army of the delta was the cream of the army of the soudan. the officers remained for long periods, many all their lives, in the obscurity of the remote provinces. some had been sent there in disgrace, others in disfavour. some had been forced to serve out of egypt by extreme poverty, others were drawn to the soudan by the hopes of gratifying peculiar tastes. the majority had harems of the women of the country, which were limited only by the amount of money they could lay their hands on by any method. many were hopeless and habitual drunkards. nearly all were dishonest. all were indolent and incapable.

under such leadership the finest soldiery would have soon degenerated. the egyptians in the soudan were not fine soldiers. like their officers, they were the worst part of the khedivial army. like them, they had been driven to the south. like them, they were slothful and effete. their training was imperfect; their discipline was lax; their courage was low. nor was even this all the weakness and peril of their position; for while the regular troops were thus demoralised, there existed a powerful local irregular force of bazingers (soudanese riflemen), as well armed as the soldiers, more numerous, more courageous, and who regarded the alien garrisons with fear that continually diminished and hate that continually grew. and behind regulars and irregulars alike the wild arab tribes of the desert and the hardy blacks of the forests, goaded by suffering and injustice, thought the foreigners the cause of all their woes, and were delayed only by their inability to combine from sweeping them off the face of the earth. never was there such a house of cards as the egyptian dominion in the soudan. the marvel is that it stood so long, not that it fell so soon.

the names of two men of character and fame are forever connected with the actual outburst. one was an english general, the other an arab priest; yet, in spite of the great gulf and vivid contrast between their conditions, they resembled each other in many respects. both were earnest and enthusiastic men of keen sympathies and passionate emotions. both were powerfully swayed by religious fervour. both exerted great personal influence on all who came in contact with them. both were reformers. the arab was an african reproduction of the englishman; the englishman a superior and civilised development of the arab. in the end they fought to the death, but for an important part of their lives their influence on the fortunes of the soudan was exerted in the same direction. mohammed ahmed, 'the mahdi,' will be discussed in his own place. charles gordon needs little introduction. long before this tale begins his reputation was european, and the fame of the 'ever-victorious army' had spread far beyond the great wall of china.

the misgovernment of the egyptians and the misery of the soudanese reached their greatest extreme in the seventh decade of the present century. from such a situation there seemed to be no issue other than by force of arms. the arab tribes lacked no provocation. yet they were destitute of two moral forces essential to all rebellions. the first was the knowledge that better things existed. the second was a spirit of combination. general gordon showed them the first. the mahdi provided the second.

it is impossible to study any part of charles gordon's career without being drawn to all the rest. as his wild and varied fortunes lead him from sebastopol to pekin, from gravesend to south africa, from mauritius to the soudan, the reader follows fascinated. every scene is strange, terrible, or dramatic. yet, remarkable as are the scenes, the actor is the more extraordinary; a type without comparison in modern times and with few likenesses in history. rare and precious is the truly disinterested man. potentates of many lands and different degree—the emperor of china, the king of the belgians, the premier of cape colony, the khedive of egypt—competed to secure his services. the importance of his offices varied no less than their nature. one day he was a subaltern of sappers; on another he commanded the chinese army; the next he directed an orphanage; or was governor-general of the soudan, with supreme powers of life and death and peace and war; or served as private secretary to lord ripon. but in whatever capacity he laboured he was true to his reputation. whether he is portrayed bitterly criticising to graham the tactics of the assault on the redan; or pulling the head of lar wang from under his bedstead and waving it in paroxysms of indignation before the astonished eyes of sir halliday macartney; or riding alone into the camp of the rebel suliman and receiving the respectful salutes of those who had meant to kill him; or telling the khedive ismail that he 'must have the whole soudan to govern'; or reducing his salary to half the regulation amount because 'he thought it was too much'; or ruling a country as large as europe; or collecting facts for lord ripon's rhetorical efforts—we perceive a man careless alike of the frowns of men or the smiles of women, of life or comfort, wealth or fame.

it was a pity that one, thus gloriously free from the ordinary restraining influences of human society, should have found in his own character so little mental ballast. his moods were capricious and uncertain, his passions violent, his impulses sudden and inconsistent. the mortal enemy of the morning had become a trusted ally before the night. the friend he loved to-day he loathed to-morrow. scheme after scheme formed in his fertile brain, and jostled confusingly together. all in succession were pressed with enthusiasm. all at times were rejected with disdain. a temperament naturally neurotic had been aggravated by an acquired habit of smoking; and the general carried this to so great an extreme that he was rarely seen without a cigarette. his virtues are famous among men; his daring and resource might turn the tide or war; his energy would have animated a whole people; his achievements are upon record; but it must also be set down that few more uncertain and impracticable forces than gordon have ever been introduced into administration and diplomacy.

although the egyptian government might loudly proclaim their detestation of slavery, their behaviour in the soudan was viewed with suspicion by the european powers, and particularly by great britain. to vindicate his sincerity the khedive ismail in 1874 appointed gordon to be governor of the equatorial province in succession to sir samuel baker. the name of the general was a sufficient guarantee that the slave trade was being earnestly attacked. the khedive would gladly have stopped at the guarantee, and satisfied the world without disturbing 'vested interests.' but the mission, which may have been originally instituted as a pretence, soon became in gordon's energetic hands very real. circumstances, moreover, soon enlisted the sympathies of the egyptian government on the side of their zealous agent. the slave dealers had committed every variety of atrocity for which the most odious traffic in the world afforded occasion; but when, under the leadership of zubehr rahamna, they refused to pay their annual tribute, it was felt in cairo that their crimes had cried aloud for chastisement.

zubehr is sufficiently described when it has been said that he was the most notorious slave dealer africa has ever produced. his infamy had spread beyond the limits of the continent which was the scene of his exploits to the distant nations of the north and west. in reality, his rule was a distinct advance on the anarchy which had preceded it, and certainly he was no worse than others of his vile trade. his scale of business was, however, more extended. what william whiteley was in respect of goods and chattels, that was zubehr in respect of slaves—a universal provider. magnitude lends a certain grandeur to crime; and zubehr in the height of his power, at the head of the slave merchants' confederacy, might boast the retinue of a king and exercise authority over wide regions and a powerful army.

as early as 1869 he was practically the independent ruler of the bahr-el-ghazal. the khedive resolved to assert his rights. a small egyptian force was sent to subdue the rebel slaver who not only disgraced humanity but refused to pay tribute. like most of the khedivial expeditions the troops under bellal bey met with ill-fortune. they came, they saw, they ran away. some, less speedy than the rest, fell on the field of dishonour. the rebellion was open. nevertheless it was the khedive who sought peace. zubehr apologised for defeating the viceregal soldiers and remained supreme in the bahr-el-ghazal. thence he planned the conquest of darfur, at that time an independent kingdom. the egyptian government were glad to join with him in the enterprise. the man they had been unable to conquer, they found it expedient to assist. the operations were successful. the king of darfur, who was distinguished no less for his valour than for his folly, was killed. the whole country was subdued. the whole population available after the battles became slaves. zubehr thus wielded a formidable power. the khedivial government, thinking to ensure his loyalty, created him a pasha—a rank which he could scarcely disgrace; and the authority of the rebel was thus unwillingly recognised by the ruler. such was the situation when gordon first came to the soudan.

it was beyond the power of the new governor of the equatorial province at once to destroy the slave-hunting confederacy. yet he struck heavy blows at the slave trade, and when in 1877, after a short visit to england, he returned to the soudan as governor-general and with absolute power, he assailed it with redoubled energy. fortune assisted his efforts, for the able zubehr was enticed to cairo, and, once there, the government refused to allow their faithful ally and distinguished guest to go back to his happy-hunting grounds. although the slave dealers were thus robbed of their great leader, they were still strong, and zubehr's son, the brave suliman, found a considerable following. furious at his father's captivity, and alarmed lest his own should follow, he meditated revolt. but the governor-general, mounted on a swift camel and attired in full uniform, rode alone into the rebel camp and compelled the submission of its chiefs before they could recover from their amazement. the confederacy was severely shaken, and when, in the following year, suliman again revolted, the egyptian troops under gessi pasha were able to disperse his forces and induce him to surrender on terms. the terms were broken, and suliman and ten of his companions suffered death by shooting [von slatin, baron rudolf karl. fire and sword in the soudan, p.28.] the league of the slave dealers was thus destroyed.

towards the end of 1879 gordon left the soudan. with short intervals he had spent five busy years in its provinces. his energy had stirred the country. he had struck at the root of the slave trade, he had attacked the system of slavery, and, as slavery was the greatest institution in the land, he had undermined the whole social system. indignation had stimulated his activity to an extraordinary degree. in a climate usually fatal to europeans he discharged the work of five officers. careless of his methods, he bought slaves himself, drilled them, and with the soldiers thus formed pounced on the caravans of the hunters. traversing the country on a fleet dromedary—on which in a single year he is said to have covered 3,840 miles—he scattered justice and freedom among the astonished natives. he fed the infirm, protected the weak, executed the wicked. to some he gave actual help, to many freedom, to all new hopes and aspirations. nor were the tribes ungrateful. the fiercest savages and cannibals respected the life of the strange white man. the women blessed him. he could ride unarmed and alone where a brigade of soldiers dared not venture. but he was, as he knew himself, the herald of the storm. oppressed yet ferocious races had learned that they had rights; the misery of the soudanese was lessened, but their knowledge had increased. the whole population was unsettled, and the wheels of change began slowly to revolve; nor did they stop until they had accomplished an enormous revolution.

the part played by the second force is more obscure. few facts are so encouraging to the student of human development as the desire, which most men and all communities manifest at all times, to associate with their actions at least the appearance of moral right. however distorted may be their conceptions of virtue, however feeble their efforts to attain even to their own ideals, it is a pleasing feature and a hopeful augury that they should wish to be justified. no community embarks on a great enterprise without fortifying itself with the belief that from some points of view its motives are lofty and disinterested. it is an involuntary tribute, the humble tribute of imperfect beings, to the eternal temples of truth and beauty. the sufferings of a people or a class may be intolerable, but before they will take up arms and risk their lives some unselfish and impersonal spirit must animate them. in countries where there is education and mental activity or refinement, this high motive is found in the pride of glorious traditions or in a keen sympathy with surrounding misery. ignorance deprives savage nations of such incentives. yet in the marvellous economy of nature this very ignorance is a source of greater strength. it affords them the mighty stimulus of fanaticism. the french communists might plead that they upheld the rights of man. the desert tribes proclaimed that they fought for the glory of god. but although the force of fanatical passion is far greater than that exerted by any philosophical belief, its sanction is just the same. it gives men something which they think is sublime to fight for, and this serves them as an excuse for wars which it is desirable to begin for totally different reasons. fanaticism is not a cause of war. it is the means which helps savage peoples to fight. it is the spirit which enables them to combine—the great common object before which all personal or tribal disputes become insignificant. what the horn is to the rhinoceros, what the sting is to the wasp, the mohammedan faith was to the arabs of the soudan—a faculty of offence or defence.

it was all this and no more. it was not the reason of the revolt. it strengthened, it characterised, but it did not cause. ['i do not believe that fanaticism exists as it used to do in the world, judging from what i have seen in this so-called fanatic land. it is far more a question of property, and is more like communism under the flag of religion.'—general gordon's journals at khartoum, bk.i. p.13.] those whose practice it is to regard their own nation as possessing a monopoly of virtue and common-sense, are wont to ascribe every military enterprise of savage peoples to fanaticism. they calmly ignore obvious and legitimate motives. the most rational conduct is considered mad. it has therefore been freely stated, and is to some extent believed, that the revolt in the soudan was entirely religious. if the worst untruths are those that have some appearance of veracity, this impression must be very false indeed. it is, perhaps, an historical fact that the revolt of a large population has never been caused solely or even mainly by religious enthusiasm.

the reasons which forced the peoples of the soudan to revolt were as strong as the defence which their oppressors could offer was feeble. looking at the question from a purely political standpoint, we may say that upon the whole there exists no record of a better case for rebellion than presented itself to the soudanese. their country was being ruined; their property was plundered; their women were ravished; their liberties were curtailed; even their lives were threatened. aliens ruled the inhabitants; the few oppressed the many; brave men were harried by cowards; the weak compelled the strong. here were sufficient reasons. since any armed movement against an established government can be justified only by success, strength is an important revolutionary virtue. it was a virtue that the arabs might boast. they were indeed far stronger than they, their persecutors, or the outside world had yet learned. all were soon to be enlightened.

the storm gathered and the waters rose. three great waves impelled the living tide against the tottering house founded on the desert sand. the arab suffered acutely from poverty, misgovernment, and oppression. infuriated, he looked up and perceived that the cause of all his miseries was a weak and cowardly foreigner, a despicable 'turk.' the antagonism of races increased the hatred sprung from social evils. the moment was at hand. then, and not till then, the third wave came—the wave of fanaticism, which, catching up and surmounting the other waves, covered all the flood with its white foam, and, bearing on with the momentum of the waters, beat in thunder against the weak house so that it fell; and great was the fall thereof.

down to the year 1881 there was no fanatical movement in the soudan. in their utter misery the hopeless inhabitants had neglected even the practices of religion. they were nevertheless prepared for any enterprise, however desperate, which might free them from the egyptian yoke. all that delayed them was the want of some leader who could combine the tribes and restore their broken spirits, and in the summer of 1881 the leader appeared. his subsequent career is within the limits of this account, and since his life throws a strong light on the thoughts and habits of the arabs of the soudan it may be worth while to trace it from the beginning.

the man who was the proximate cause of the river war was born by the banks of the nile, not very far from dongola. his family were poor and of no account in the province. but as the prophet had claimed a royal descent, and as a sacred example was sprung from david's line, mohammed ahmed asserted that he was of the 'ashraf,'(descendants of the prophet) and the assertion, since it cannot be disproved, may be accepted. his father was a humble priest; yet he contrived to give his son some education in the practices of religion, the principles of the koran, and the art of writing. then he died at kerreri while on a journey to khartoum, and left the future mahdi, still a child, to the mercies of the world. solitary trees, if they grow at all, grow strong; and a boy deprived of a father's care often develops, if he escape the perils of youth, an independence and vigour of thought which may restore in after life the heavy loss of early days. it was so with mohammed ahmed. he looked around for an occupation and subsistence. a large proportion of the population of religious countries pass their lives at leisure, supported by the patient labour of the devout. the young man determined to follow the profession for which he felt his talents suited, and which would afford him the widest scope. he became a priest. many of the religious teachers of heathen and other countries are devoid of enthusiasm and turn their attention to the next world because doing so affords them an easy living in this. happily this is not true of all. it was not true of mohammed. even at an early age he manifested a zeal for god's service, and displayed a peculiar aptitude for learning the tenets and dogmas of the mohammedan belief. so promising a pupil did not long lack a master in a country where intelligence and enthusiasm were scarce. his aspirations growing with his years and knowledge, he journeyed to khartoum as soon as his religious education was completed, and became a disciple of the renowned and holy sheikh, mohammed sherif.

his devotion to his superior, to his studies and to the practice of austerities, and a strange personal influence he was already beginning to show, won him by degrees a few disciples of his own: and with them he retired to the island of abba. here by the waters of the white nile mohammed ahmed lived for several years. his two brothers, who were boat-builders in the neighbourhood, supported him by their industry. but it must have been an easy burden, for we read that he 'hollowed out for himself a cave in the mud bank, and lived in almost entire seclusion, fasting often for days, and occasionally paying a visit to the head of the order to assure him of his devotion and obedience.' [i take this passage from fire and sword in the soudan, by slatin. his account is the most graphic and trustworthy of all known records of the mahdi. he had terrible opportunities of collecting information. i have followed his version (chapter iv.) very closely on this subject.] meanwhile his sanctity increased, and the labour and charity of the brothers were assisted by the alms of godly travellers on the river.

this virtuous and frugal existence was disturbed and terminated by an untoward event. the renowned and holy sheikh made a feast to celebrate the circumcision of his sons. that the merriment of the auspicious occasion and the entertainment of the guests might be increased, sherif, according to the lax practice of the time, granted a dispensation from any sins committed during the festivities, and proclaimed in god's name the suspension of the rules against singing and dancing by which the religious orders were bound. the ascetic of abba island did not join in these seemingly innocent dissipations. with the recklessness of the reformer he protested against the demoralisation of the age, and loudly affirmed the doctrine that god alone could forgive sins. these things were speedily brought to the ears of the renowned sheikh, and in all the righteous indignation that accompanies detected wrong-doing, he summoned mohammed ahmed before him. the latter obeyed. he respected his superior. he was under obligations to him. his ire had disappeared as soon as it had been expressed. he submissively entreated forgiveness; but in vain. sherif felt that some sort of discipline must be maintained among his flock. he had connived at disobedience to the divine law. all the more must he uphold his own authority. rising in anger, he drove the presumptuous disciple from his presence with bitter words, and expunged his name from the order of the elect.

mohammed went home. he was greatly distressed. yet his fortunes were not ruined. his sanctity was still a valuable and, unless he chose otherwise, an inalienable asset. the renowned sheikh had a rival—nearly as holy and more enterprising than himself. from him the young priest might expect a warm welcome. nevertheless he did not yet abandon his former superior. placing a heavy wooden collar on his neck, clad in sackcloth and sprinkled with ashes, he again returned to his spiritual leader, and in this penitential guise implored pardon. he was ignominiously ejected. nor did he venture to revisit the unforgiving sheikh. but it happened that in a few weeks sherif had occasion to journey to the island of abba. his former disciple appeared suddenly before him, still clad in sackcloth and defiled by ashes. careless of his plain misery, and unmoved by his loyalty, which was the more remarkable since it was disinterested, the implacable sheikh poured forth a stream of invective. among many insults, one went home: 'be off, you wretched dongolawi.'

although the natives of the dongola province were despised and disliked in the southern soudan, it is not at first apparent why mohammed should have resented so bitterly the allusion to his birthplace. but abuse by class is a dangerous though effective practice. a man will perhaps tolerate an offensive word applied to himself, but will be infuriated if his nation, his rank, or his profession is insulted.

mohammed ahmed rose. all that man could do to make amends he had done. now he had been publicly called 'a wretched dongolawi.' henceforth he would afflict sherif with his repentance no longer. reaching his house, he informed his disciples—for they had not abandoned him in all his trouble—that the sheikh had finally cast him off, and that he would now take his discarded allegiance elsewhere. the rival, the sheikh el koreishi, lived near mesalamia. he was jealous of sherif and envied him his sanctimonious disciples. he was therefore delighted to receive a letter from mohammed ahmed announcing his breach with his former superior and offering his most devoted services. he returned a cordial invitation, and the priest of abba island made all preparation for the journey.

this new development seems to have startled the unforgiving sherif. it was no part of his policy to alienate his followers, still less to add to those of his rival. after all, the quality of mercy was high and noble. he would at last graciously forgive the impulsive but repentant disciple. he wrote him a letter to this effect. but it was now too late. mohammed replied with grave dignity that he had committed no crime, that he sought no forgiveness, and that 'a wretched dongolawi' would not offend by his presence the renowned sheikh el sherif. after this indulgence he departed to mesalamia.

but the fame of his doings spread far and wide throughout the land. 'even in distant darfur it was the principal topic of conversation' [slatin, fire and sword]. rarely had a fiki been known to offend his superior; never to refuse his forgiveness. mohammed did not hesitate to declare that he had done what he had done as a protest against the decay of religious fervour and the torpor of the times. since his conduct had actually caused his dismissal, it appears that he was quite justified in making a virtue of necessity. at any rate he was believed, and the people groaning under oppression looked from all the regions to the figure that began to grow on the political horizon. his fame grew. rumour, loud-tongued, carried it about the land that a great reformer was come to purify the faith and break the stony apathy which paralysed the hearts of islam. whisperings added that a man was found who should break from off the necks of the tribes the hateful yoke of egypt. mohammed now deliberately entered upon the path of ambition.

throughout nubia the shukri belief prevails: some day, in a time of shame and trouble, a second great prophet will arise—a mahdi who shall lead the faithful nearer god and sustain the religion. the people of the soudan always look inquiringly to any ascetic who rises to fame, and the question is often repeated, 'art thou he that should come, or do we look for another?' of this powerful element of disturbance mohammed ahmed resolved to avail himself. he requested and obtained the permission of the sheikh koreishi to return to abba, where he was well known, and with which island village his name was connected, and so came back in triumph to the scene of his disgrace. thither many pilgrims began to resort. he received valuable presents, which he distributed to the poor, who acclaimed him as 'zahed'—a renouncer of earthly pleasures. he journeyed preaching through kordofan, and received the respect of the priesthood and the homage of the people. and while he spoke of the purification of the religion, they thought that the burning words might be applied to the freedom of the soil. he supported his sermons by writings, which were widely read. when a few months later the sheikh koreishi died, the priest of abba proceeded forthwith to erect a tomb to his memory, directing and controlling the voluntary labours of the reverent arabs who carried the stones.

while mohammed was thus occupied he received the support of a man, less virtuous than but nearly as famous as himself. abdullah was one of four brothers, the sons of an obscure priest; but he inherited no great love of religion or devotion to its observances. he was a man of determination and capacity. he set before himself two distinct ambitions, both of which he accomplished: to free the soudan of foreigners, and to rule it himself. he seems to have had a queer presentiment of his career. this much he knew: there would be a great religious leader, and he would be his lieutenant and his successor. when zubehr conquered darfur, abdullah presented himself before him and hailed him as 'the expected mahdi.' zubehr, however, protested with superfluous energy that he was no saint, and the impulsive patriot was compelled to accept his assurances. so soon as he saw mohammed ahmed rising to fame and displaying qualities of courage and energy, he hastened to throw himself at his feet and assure him of his devotion.

no part of slatin pasha's fascinating account of his perils and sufferings is so entertaining as that in which abdullah, then become khalifa of the whole soudan, describes his early struggles and adversity:

'indeed it was a very troublesome journey. at that time my entire property consisted of one donkey, and he had a gall on his back, so that i could not ride him. but i made him carry my water-skin and bag of corn, over which i spread my rough cotton garment, and drove him along in front of me. at that time i wore the white cotton shirt, like the rest of my tribe. my clothes and my dialect at once marked me out as a stranger wherever i went; and when i crossed the nile i was frequently greeted with "what do you want? go back to your own country. there is nothing to steal here."'

what a life of ups and downs! it was a long stride from the ownership of one saddle-galled donkey to the undisputed rule of an empire. the weary wayfarer may have dreamed of this, for ambition stirs imagination nearly as much as imagination excites ambition. but further he could not expect or wish to see. nor could he anticipate as, in the complacency of a man who had done with evil days, he told the story of his rise to the submissive slatin, that the day would come when he would lead an army of more than fifty thousand men to destruction, and that the night would follow when, almost alone, his empire shrunk again to the saddle-galled donkey, he would seek his home in distant kordofan, while this same slatin who knelt so humbly before him would lay the fierce pursuing squadrons on the trail.

mohammed ahmed received his new adherent kindly, but without enthusiasm. for some months abdullah carried stones to build the tomb of the sheikh el koreishi. gradually they got to know each other. 'but long before he entrusted me with his secret,' said abdullah to slatin, 'i knew that he was "the expected guide."' [slatin, fire and sword, p.131.] and though the world might think that the 'messenger of god' was sent to lead men to happiness in heaven, abdullah attached to the phrase a significance of his own, and knew that he should lead him to power on earth. the two formed a strong combination. the mahdi—for such mohammed ahmed had already in secret announced himself—brought the wild enthusiasm of religion, the glamour of a stainless life, and the influence of superstition into the movement. but if he were the soul of the plot, abdullah was the brain. he was the man of the world, the practical politician, the general.

there now commenced a great conspiracy against the egyptian government. it was fostered by the discontents and justified by the miseries of the people of the soudan. the mahdi began to collect adherents and to extend his influence in all parts of the country. he made a second journey through kordofan, and received everywhere promises of support from all classes. the most distant tribes sent assurances of devotion and reverence, and, what was of more importance, of armed assistance. the secret could not be long confined to those who welcomed the movement. as the ramifications of the plot spread they were perceived by the renowned sheikh sherif, who still nursed his chagrin and thirsted for revenge. he warned the egyptian government. they, knowing his envy and hatred of his former disciple, discounted his evidence and for some time paid no attention to the gathering of the storm. but presently more trustworthy witnesses confirmed his statements, and raouf pasha, then governor-general, finding himself confronted with a growing agitation, determined to act. he accordingly sent a messenger to the island of abba, to summon mohammed ahmed to khartoum to justify his behaviour and explain his intentions. the news of the despatch of the messenger was swiftly carried to the mahdi! he consulted with his trusty lieutenant. they decided to risk everything, and without further delay to defy the government. when it is remembered how easily an organised army, even though it be in a bad condition, can stamp out the beginnings of revolt among a population, the courage of their resolve must be admired.

the messenger arrived. he was received with courtesy by abdullah, and forthwith conducted before the mahdi. he delivered his message, and urged mohammed ahmed to comply with the orders of the governor-general. the mahdi listened for some time in silence, but with increasing emotion; and when the messenger advised him, as he valued his own safety, to journey to khartoum, if only to justify himself, his passion overcame him. 'what!' he shouted, rising suddenly and striking his breast with his hand. 'by the grace of god and his prophet i am master of this country, and never shall i go to khartoum to justify myself.' [slatin, fire and sword, p.135.] the terrified messenger withdrew. the rebellion of the mahdi had begun.

both the priest and the governor-general prepared for military enterprise. the mahdi proclaimed a holy war against the foreigners, alike the enemies of god and the scourge of men. he collected his followers. he roused the local tribes. he wrote letters to all parts of the soudan, calling upon the people to fight for a purified religion, the freedom of the soil, and god's holy prophet 'the expected mahdi.' he promised the honour of men to those who lived, the favour of god to those who fell, and lastly that the land should be cleared of the miserable 'turk.' 'better,' he said, and it became the watchword of the revolt, 'thousands of graves than a dollar tax.' [ohrwalder, ten years' captivity in the mahdi's camp.]

nor was raouf pasha idle. he sent two companies of infantry with one gun by steamer to abba to arrest the fanatic who disturbed the public peace. what followed is characteristically egyptian. each company was commanded by a captain. to encourage their efforts, whichever officer captured the mahdi was promised promotion. at sunset on an august evening in 1881 the steamer arrived at abba. the promise of the governor-general had provoked the strife, not the emulation of the officers. both landed with their companies and proceeded by different routes under the cover of darkness to the village where the mahdi dwelt. arriving simultaneously from opposite directions, they fired into each other, and, in the midst of this mistaken combat, the mahdi rushed upon them with his scanty following and destroyed them impartially. a few soldiers succeeded in reaching the bank of the river. but the captain of the steamer would run no risks, and those who could not swim out to the vessel were left to their fate. with such tidings the expedition returned to khartoum.

mohammed ahmed had been himself wounded in the attack, but the faithful abdullah bound up the injury, so that none might know that god's prophet had been pierced by carnal weapons. the effect of the success was electrical. the news spread throughout the soudan. men with sticks had slain men with rifles. a priest had destroyed the soldiers of the government. surely this was the expected one. the mahdi, however, profited by his victory only to accomplish a retreat without loss of prestige. abdullah had no illusions. more troops would be sent. they were too near to khartoum. prudence counselled flight to regions more remote. but before this new hegira the mahdi appointed his four khalifas, in accordance with prophecy and precedent. the first was abdullah. of the others it is only necessary at this moment to notice ali-wad-helu, the chief of one of the local tribes, and among the first to rally to the standard of revolt.

then the retreat began; but it was more like a triumphal progress. attended by a considerable following, and preceded by tales of the most wonderful miracles and prodigies, the mahdi retired to a mountain in kordofan to which he gave the name of jebel masa, that being the mountain whence 'the expected guide' is declared in the koran sooner or later to appear. he was now out of reach of khartoum, but within reach of fashoda. the egyptian governor of that town, rashid bey, a man of more enterprise and even less military knowledge than is usual in his race, determined to make all attempt to seize the rebel and disperse his following. taking no precautions, he fell on the 9th of december into an ambush, was attacked unprepared, and was himself, with fourteen hundred men, slaughtered by the ill-armed but valiant arabs.

the whole country stirred. the government, thoroughly alarmed by the serious aspect the revolt had assumed, organised a great expedition. four thousand troops under yusef, a pasha of distinguished reputation, were sent against the rebels. meanwhile the mahdi and his followers suffered the extremes of want. their cause was as yet too perilous for the rich to join. only the poor flocked to the holy standard. all that mohammed possessed he gave away, keeping nothing for himself, excepting only a horse to lead his followers in battle. abdullah walked. nevertheless the rebels were half-famished, and armed with scarcely any more deadly weapons than sticks and stones. the army of the government approached slowly. their leaders anticipated an easy victory. their contempt for the enemy was supreme. they did not even trouble themselves to post sentries by night, but slept calmly inside a slender thorn fence, unwatched save by their tireless foes. and so it came to pass that in the half-light of the early morning of the 7th of june the mahdi, his ragged khalifas, and his almost naked army rushed upon them, and slew them to a man.

the victory was decisive. southern kordofan was at the feet of the priest of abba. stores of arms and ammunition had fallen into his hands. thousands of every class hastened to join his standard. no one doubted that he was the divine messenger sent to free them from their oppressors. the whole of the arab tribes all over the soudan rose at once. the revolt broke out simultaneously in sennar and darfur, and spread to provinces still more remote. the smaller egyptian posts, the tax-gatherers and local administrators, were massacred in every district. only the larger garrisons maintained themselves in the principal towns. they were at once blockaded. all communications were interrupted. all legal authority was defied. only the mahdi was obeyed.

it is now necessary to look for a moment to egypt. the misgovernment which in the soudan had caused the rebellion of the mahdi, in egypt produced the revolt of arabi pasha. as the people of the soudan longed to be rid of the foreign oppressors—the so-called 'turks'—so those of the delta were eager to free themselves from the foreign regulators and the real turkish influence. while men who lived by the sources of the nile asserted that tribes did not exist for officials to harry, others who dwelt at its mouth protested that nations were not made to be exploited by creditors or aliens. the ignorant south found their leader in a priest: the more educated north looked to a soldier. mohammed ahmed broke the egyptian yoke; arabi gave expression to the hatred of the egyptians for the turks. but although the hardy arabs might scatter the effete egyptians, the effete egyptians were not likely to disturb the solid battalions of europe. after much hesitation and many attempts at compromise, the liberal administration of mr. gladstone sent a fleet which reduced the forts of alexandria to silence and the city to anarchy. the bombardment of the fleet was followed by the invasion of a powerful army. twenty-five thousand men were landed in egypt. the campaign was conducted with celerity and skill. the egyptian armies were slaughtered or captured. their patriotic but commonplace leader was sentenced to death and condemned to exile, and great britain assumed the direction of egyptian affairs.

the british soon restored law and order in egypt, and the question of the revolt in the soudan came before the english advisers of the khedive. notwithstanding the poverty and military misfortunes which depressed the people of the delta, the desire to hold their southern provinces was evident. the british government, which at that time was determined to pursue a policy of non-interference in the soudan, gave a tacit consent, and another great expedition was prepared to suppress the false prophet, as the english and egyptians deemed him—'the expected mahdi,' as the people of the soudan believed.

a retired officer of the indian staff corps and a few european officers of various nationalities were sent to khartoum to organise the new field force. meanwhile the mahdi, having failed to take by storm, laid siege to el obeid, the chief town of kordofan. during the summer of 1883 the egyptian troops gradually concentrated at khartoum until a considerable army was formed. it was perhaps the worst army that has ever marched to war. one extract from general hicks's letters will suffice. writing on the 8th of june, 1883, to sir e. wood, he says incidentally: 'fifty-one men of the krupp battery deserted on the way here, although in chains.' the officers and men who had been defeated fighting for their own liberties at tel-el-kebir were sent to be destroyed, fighting to take away the liberties of others in the soudan. they had no spirit, no discipline, hardly any training, and in a force of over eight thousand men there were scarcely a dozen capable officers. the two who were the most notable of these few—general hicks, who commanded, and colonel farquhar, the chief of the staff—must be remarked.

el obeid had fallen before the ill-fated expedition left khartoum; but the fact that slatin bey, an austrian officer in the egyptian service, was still maintaining himself in darfur provided it with an object. on the 9th of september hicks and his army (the actual strength of which was 7,000 infantry, 400 mounted bashi bazuks, 500 cavalry, 100 circassians, 10 mounted guns, 4 krupps, and 6 nordenfeldt machine guns) left omdurman and marched to duem. although the actual command of the expedition was vested in the english officer, ala-ed-din pasha, the governor-general who had succeeded raouf pasha, exercised an uncertain authority. differences of opinion were frequent, though all the officers were agreed in taking the darkest views of their chances. the miserable host toiled slowly onward towards its destruction, marching in a south-westerly direction through shat and rahad. here the condition of the force was so obviously demoralised that a german servant (gustav klootz, the servant of baron seckendorf) actually deserted to the mahdi's camp. he was paraded in triumph as an english officer.

on the approach of the government troops the mahdi had marched out of el obeid and established himself in the open country, where he made his followers live under military conditions and continually practised them in warlike evolutions. more than forty thousand men collected round his standard, and the arabs were now armed with several thousand rifles and a few cannon, as well as a great number of swords and spears. to these proportions had the little band of followers who fought at abba grown! the disparity of the forces was apparent before the battle. the mahdi thereupon wrote to hicks, calling on him to surrender and offering terms. his proposals were treated with disdain, although the probable result of an engagement was clear.

until the expedition reached rahad only a few cavalry patrols had watched its slow advance. but on the 1st of november the mahdi left el obeid and marched with his whole power to meet his adversary. the collision took place on the 3rd of november. all through that day the egyptians struggled slowly forward, in great want of water, losing continually from the fire of the soudanese riflemen, and leaving several guns behind them. on the next morning they were confronted by the main body of the arab army, and their attempts to advance further were defeated with heavy loss. the force began to break up. yet another day was consumed before it was completely destroyed. scarcely five hundred egyptians escaped death; hardly as many of the arabs fell. the european officers perished fighting to the end; and the general met his fate sword in hand, at the head of the last formed body of his troops, his personal valour and physical strength exciting the admiration even of the fearless enemy, so that in chivalrous respect they buried his body with barbaric honours. mohammed ahmed celebrated his victory with a salute of one hundred guns; and well he might, for the soudan was now his, and his boast that, by god's grace and the favour of the prophet, he was the master of all the land had been made good by force of arms.

no further attempt was made to subdue the country. the people of the soudan had won their freedom by their valour and by the skill and courage of their saintly leader. it only remained to evacuate the towns and withdraw the garrisons safely. but what looked like the winding-up of one story was really the beginning of another, much longer, just as bloody, commencing in shame and disaster, but ending in triumph and, let us hope, in peace.

i desire for a moment to take a more general view of the mahdi's movement than the narrative has allowed. the original causes were social and racial. but, great as was the misery of the people, their spirit was low, and they would not have taken up arms merely on material grounds. then came the mahdi. he gave the tribes the enthusiasm they lacked. the war broke out. it is customary to lay to the charge of mohammed ahmed all the blood that was spilled. to my mind it seems that he may divide the responsibility with the unjust rulers who oppressed the land, with the incapable commanders who muddled away the lives of their men, with the vacillating ministers who aggravated the misfortunes. but, whatever is set to the mahdi's account, it should not be forgotten that he put life and soul into the hearts of his countrymen, and freed his native land of foreigners. the poor miserable natives, eating only a handful of grain, toiling half-naked and without hope, found a new, if terrible magnificence added to life. within their humble breasts the spirit of the mahdi roused the fires of patriotism and religion. life became filled with thrilling, exhilarating terrors. they existed in a new and wonderful world of imagination. while they lived there were great things to be done; and when they died, whether it were slaying the egyptians or charging the british squares, a paradise which they could understand awaited them. there are many christians who reverence the faith of islam and yet regard the mahdi merely as a commonplace religious impostor whom force of circumstances elevated to notoriety. in a certain sense, this may be true. but i know not how a genuine may be distinguished from a spurious prophet, except by the measure of his success. the triumphs of the mahdi were in his lifetime far greater than those of the founder of the mohammedan faith; and the chief difference between orthodox mohammedanism and mahdism was that the original impulse was opposed only by decaying systems of government and society and the recent movement came in contact with civilisation and the machinery of science. recognising this, i do not share the popular opinion, and i believe that if in future years prosperity should come to the peoples of the upper nile, and learning and happiness follow in its train, then the first arab historian who shall investigate the early annals of that new nation will not forget, foremost among the heroes of his race, to write the name of mohammed ahmed.