napoleon’s return to paris—the egyptian campaign—the 18th brumaire
in december, 1797, he returned to paris. his whole family were collected there, forming a “bonaparte colony,” as the parisians called it. there were joseph and his wife; lucien, now married to christine boyer, his old landlord’s daughter, a marriage napoleon never forgave; eliza, now madame bacciochi; pauline, now madame leclerc. madame letitia was in the city, with caroline; louis and jerome were still in school. josephine had her daughter hortense, a girl of thirteen, with her. her son eugène, though but fifteen years old, was away on a mission for napoleon, who, in spite of the boy’s youth, had already taken him into his confidence. according to napoleon’s express desire, all the family lived in great simplicity.
the return to paris of the commander-in-chief of the army of italy was the signal for a popular ovation. the directory gave him every honor, changing the name of the street in which he lived to rue de la victoire, and making him a member of the institute; but, conscious of its feebleness, and inspired by that suspicion which since the revolution began had caused the ruin of so many men, it planned to get rid of him.
of the coalition against france, formed in 1793, one member alone remained in arms—england. napoleon was to be sent against her. an invasion of the island was first discussed, and he made an examination of the north coast. 90his report was adverse, and he substituted a plan for the invasion of egypt—an old idea in the french government.
the directory gladly accepted the change, and napoleon was made commander-in-chief of the army of egypt. on the 4th of may he left paris for toulon.
to napoleon this expedition was a merciful escape. he once said to madame rémusat:
“in paris, and paris is france, they never can take the smallest interest in things, if they do not take it in persons.... the great difficulty of the directory was that no one cared about them, and that people began to care too much about me. this was why i conceived the happy idea of going to egypt.”
he was under the influence, too, of his imagination; the orient had always tempted him. it is certain that he went away with gigantic projects—nothing less than to conquer the whole of the east, and to become its ruler and lawgiver.
“i dreamed of all sorts of things, and i saw a way of carrying all my projects into practical execution. i would create a new religion. i saw myself in asia, upon an elephant, wearing a turban, and holding in my hand a new koran which i had myself composed. i would have united in my enterprise the experiences of two hemispheres, exploring for my benefit and instruction all history, attacking the power of england in the indies, and renewing, by their conquest, my relations with old europe. the time i passed in egypt was the most delightful period of my life, for it was the most ideal.”
his friends, watching his irritation during the days before the campaign had been decided upon, said: “a free flight in space is what such wings demand. he will die here. he must go.” he himself said: “paris weighs on me like a leaden mantle.”
napoleon sailed from france on may 19, 1798; on june 9th he reached malta, and won for france “the strongest place in europe.” july 2d he entered alexandria. on july 23d he entered cairo, after the famous battle of the pyramids.
91the french fleet had remained in aboukir bay after landing the army, and on august 1st was attacked by nelson. napoleon had not realized, before this battle, the power of the english on the sea. he knew nothing of nelson’s genius. the destruction of his fleet, and the consciousness that he and his army were prisoners in the orient, opened his eyes to the greatest weakness of france.
the winter was spent in reorganizing the government of egypt and in scientific work. over one hundred scientists had been added to the army of egypt, including some of the most eminent men of the day: monge, geoffroy-st.-hilaire, berthollet, fourier, and denon. from their arrival every opportunity was given them to carry on their work. to stimulate them, napoleon founded the institute of egypt, in which membership was granted as a reward for services.
these scientists went out in every direction, pushing their investigations up the nile as far as philoe, tracing the bed of the old canal from suez to the nile, unearthing ancient monuments, making collections of the flora and fauna, examining in detail the arts and industries of the people. everything, from the inscription on the rosetta stone to the incubation of chickens, received their attention. on the return of the expedition, their researches were published in a magnificent work called “description de l’egypte.” the information gathered by the french at this time gave a great impetus to the study of egyptology, and their investigations on the old suez canal led directly to the modern work.
the peaceful work of science and law-giving which napoleon was conducting in egypt was interrupted by the news that the porte had declared war against france, and that two turkish armies were on their way to egypt. in march he set off to syria to meet the first.
92
napoleon at the battle of the pyramids, july 21, 1798.
engraved by vallot in 1838, after painting by gros (1810). the moment chosen by the artist is that when napoleon addressed to his soldiers that short and famous harangue, “soldiers, from the summit of these pyramids forty centuries look down upon you.” in the general’s escort are murat, his head bare and his sword clasped tightly; and after him, in order, duroc, sulkowski, berthier, junot, and eugène de beauharnais, then sub-lieutenant, all on horseback. on the right are rampon, desaix, bertrand, and lasalle. this picture was ordered for the tuileries, and was exhibited first in 1810. napoleon gave it to one of his generals, and it did not reappear in paris until 1832. it is now in the gallery at versailles. gros regarded this picture as his best work, and himself chose vallot to engrave it.
93this syrian expedition was a failure, ending in a retreat made horrible not only by the enemy in the rear, but by pestilence and heat.
the disaster was a terrible disillusion for napoleon. it ended his dream of an oriental realm for himself, of a kingdom embracing the whole mediterranean for france. “i missed my fortune at st. jean d’acre,” he told his brother lucien afterward; and again, “i think my imagination died at st. jean d’acre.” the words are those of the man whose discouragement at a failure was as profound as his hope at success was high.
as napoleon entered egypt from syria, he learned that the second turkish army was near the bay of aboukir. he turned against it and defeated it completely. in the exchange of prisoners made after the battle, a bundle of french papers fell into his hands. it was the first news he had had for ten months from france, and sad news it was: italy lost, an invasion of austrians and russians threatening, the directory discredited and tottering.
if the oriental empire of his imagination had fallen, might it not be that in europe a kingdom awaited him? he decided to leave egypt at once, and with the greatest secrecy prepared for his departure. the army was turned over to kléber, and with four small vessels he sailed for france on the night of august 22, 1799. on october 16th he was in paris.
for a long time nothing had been heard of napoleon in france. the people said he had been exiled by the jealous directory. his disappearance into the orient had all the mystery and fascination of an eastern tale. his sudden reappearance had something of the heroic in it. he came like a god from olympus, unheralded, but at the critical moment.
the joy of the people, who at that day certainly preferred 94a hero to suffrage, was spontaneous and sincere. his journey from the coast to paris was a triumphal march. le retour du héros was the word in everybody’s mouth. on every side the people cried: “you alone can save the country. it is perishing without you. take the reins of government.”
at paris he found the government waiting to be overthrown. “a brain and a sword” was all that was needed to carry out a coup d’état organized while he was still in africa. everybody recognized him as the man for the hour. a large part of the military force in paris was devoted to him. his two brothers, lucien and joseph, were in positions of influence, the former president of the five hundred, as one of the two chambers was called. all that was most distinguished in the political, military, legal, and artistic circles of paris rallied to him. among the men who supported him were talleyrand, sieyès, chénier, roederer, monge, cambacérès, moreau, berthier, murat.
on the 18th brumaire (the 9th of november), 1799, the plot culminated, and napoleon was recognized as the temporary dictator of france.
the private sorrow to which napoleon returned, was as great as the public glory. during the campaign in egypt he had learned beyond a doubt that josephine’s coquetry had become open folly, and that a young officer, hippolyte charles, whom he had dismissed from the army of italy two years before, was installed at malmaison. the liaison was so scandalous that gohier, the president of the directory, advised josephine to get a divorce from napoleon and marry charles.
these rumors reached egypt, and napoleon, in despair, even talked them over with eugène de beauharnais. the boy defended his mother, and for a time succeeded in quieting napoleon’s resentment. at last, however, he learned 95in a talk with junot that the gossip was true. he lost all control of himself, and declared he would have a divorce. the idea was abandoned, but the love and reverence he had given josephine were dead. from that time she had no empire over his heart, no power to inspire him to action or to enthusiasm.
when he landed in france from egypt, josephine, foreseeing a storm, started out to meet him at lyons. unfortunately she took one road and napoleon another, and when he reached paris at six o’clock in the morning he found no one at home. when josephine arrived napoleon refused to see her, and it was three days before he relented. then his forgiveness was due to the intercession of hortense and eugène, to both of whom he was warmly attached.
but if he consented to pardon, he could never give again the passionate affection which he once had felt for her. he ceased to be a lover, and became a commonplace, tolerant, indulgent, bourgeois husband, upon whom his wife, in matters of importance, had no influence. josephine was hereafter the suppliant, but she never regained the noble kingdom she had despised.
napoleon’s domestic sorrow weakened in no way his activity and vigor in public affairs. he realized that, if he would keep his place in the hearts and confidence of the people, he must do something to show his strength, and peace was the gift he proposed to make to the nation. when he returned he found a civil war raging in la vendée. before february he had ended it. all over france brigandage had made life and property uncertain. it was stopped by his new régime.
two foreign enemies only remained at war with france—austria and england. he offered them peace. it was refused. nothing remained but to compel it. the austrians were first engaged. they had two armies in the field; one on the rhine, against which moreau was sent, the other in italy—now lost to france—besieging the french shut up in genoa.
96
“installation of the council of state at the palace of the petit luxembourg, december 29, 1799.”
by auguste conder. the councillors of state having assembled in the hall which had been arranged for the occasion, the first consul opened the séance and heard the oath taken by the sectional presidents—boulay de la meurthe (legislation), brune (war), defermont (finances), ganteaume (marine), roederer (interior). the first consul drew up and signed two proclamations, to the french people and to the army. the second consul, cambacérès, and the third consul, lebrun, were present at the meeting. locré, secrétaire-général du conseil d’état, conducted the procès-verbal. this picture is at versailles.
97moreau conducted the campaign in the rhine countries with skill, fighting two successful battles, and driving his opponent from ulm.
napoleon decided that he would himself carry on the italian campaign, but of that he said nothing in paris. his army was quietly brought together as a reserve force; then suddenly, on may 6, 1800, he left paris for geneva. immediately his plan became evident. it was nothing else than to cross the alps and fall upon the rear of the austrians, then besieging genoa.
such an undertaking was a veritable coup de théatre. its accomplishment was not less brilliant than its conception. three principal passes lead from switzerland into italy: mont cenis, the great saint bernard, and the mount saint gothard. the last was already held by the austrians. the first is the westernmost, and here napoleon directed the attention of general melas, the austrian commander. the central, or mount saint bernard, pass was left almost defenceless, and here the french army was led across, a passage surrounded by enormous difficulties, particularly for the artillery, which had to be taken to pieces and carried or dragged by the men.
save the delay which the enemy caused the french at fort bard, where five hundred men stopped the entire army, napoleon met with no serious resistance in entering italy. indeed, the austrians treated the force with contempt, declaring that it was not the first consul who led it, but an adventurer, and that the army was not made up of french, but of refugee italians.
this rumor was soon known to be false. on june 2d napoleon entered milan. it was evident that a conflict was imminent, 98and to prepare his soldiers bonaparte addressed them:
“soldiers, one of our departments was in the power of the enemy; consternation was in the south of france; the greatest part of the ligurian territory, the most faithful friends of the republic, had been invaded. the cisalpine republic had again become the grotesque plaything of the feudal régime. soldiers, you march—and already the french territory is delivered! joy and hope have succeeded in your country to consternation and fear.
“you give back liberty and independence to the people of genoa. you have delivered them from their eternal enemies. you are in the capital of the cisalpine. the enemy, terrified, no longer hopes for anything, except to regain its frontiers. you have taken possession of its hospitals, its magazines, its resources.
“the first act of the campaign is terminated. every day you hear millions of men thanking you for your deeds.
“but shall it be said that french territory has been violated with impunity? shall we allow an army which has carried fear into our families to return to its firesides? will you run with your arms? very well, march to the battle; forbid their retreat; tear from them the laurels of which they have taken possession; and so teach the world that the curse of destiny is on the rash who dare insult the territory of the great people. the result of all our efforts will be spotless glory, solid peace.”
melas, the austrian commander, had lost much time; but finally convinced that it was really bonaparte who had invaded italy, and that he had actually reached milan, he advanced into the plain of marengo. he had with him an army of from fifty to sixty thousand men well supplied with artillery.
bonaparte, ignorant that so large a force was at marengo, advanced into the plain with only a portion of his army. on june 14th melas attacked him. before noon the french saw that they had to do with the entire austrian army. for hours the battle was waged furiously, but with constant loss on the side of the french. in spite of the most intrepid fighting the army gave way. “at four o’clock in the afternoon,” says a soldier who was present, “there remained in 99a radius of two leagues not over six thousand infantry, a thousand horse, and six pieces of cannon. a third of our army was not in condition for battle. the lack of carriages to transport the sick made another third necessary for this painful task. hunger, thirst, fatigue, had forced a great number to withdraw. the sharp shooters for the most part had lost the direction of their regiments.
“he who in these frightful circumstances would have said, ‘in two hours we shall have gained the battle, made ten thousand prisoners, taken several generals, fifteen flags, forty cannons; the enemy shall have delivered to us eleven fortified places and all the territory of beautiful italy; they will soon defile shamefaced before our ranks; an armistice will suspend the plague of war and bring back peace into our country,’—he, i say, who would have said that, would have seemed to insult our desperate situation.”
the battle was won finally by the french through the fortunate arrival of desaix with re?nforcements and the imperturbable courage of the commander-in-chief. bonaparte’s coolness was the marvel of those who surrounded him.
“at the moment when the dead and the dying covered the earth, the consul was constantly braving death. he gave his orders with his accustomed coolness, and saw the storm approach without seeming to fear it. those who saw him, forgetting the danger that menaced them, said: ‘what if he should be killed? why does he not go back?’ it is said that general berthier begged him to do so.
100
napoleon the great crossing mount st. bernard, may, 1800.
engraved by antonio gilbert in 1809, under the direction of longhi, after portrait painted by david in 1805. dedicated to the prince eugène napoleon of france, viceroy of italy. it was soon after his return from marengo that napoleon expressed a wish to be painted by david. the artist had long desired this work, and seized the opportunity eagerly. he asked the first consul when he would pose for him.
“pose!” said bonaparte. “do you suppose the great men of antiquity posed for their portraits?”
“but i paint you for your time, for men who have seen you. they would like to have it like you.”
“like me! it is not the perfection of the features, a pimple on the nose, which makes resemblance. it is the character of the face that should be represented. no one cares whether the portraits of great men look like them or not. it is enough that their genius shines from the picture.”
“i have never considered it in that way. but you are right, citizen consul. you need not pose: i will paint you without that.” david went to breakfast daily after this with napoleon, in order to study his face, and the consul put at his service all the garments he had worn at marengo. it is told that david mounted napoleon on a mule for this picture, but that the general demurred. he sprang upon his horse, and, making him rear, said to the artist, “paint me thus.”
101“once general berthier came to him to tell him that the army was giving way and that the retreat had commenced. bonaparte said to him: ‘general, you do not tell me that with sufficient coolness.’ this greatness of soul, this firmness, did not leave him in the greatest dangers. when the fifty-ninth brigade reached the battle-field the action was the hottest. the first consul advanced toward them and cried: ‘come, my brave soldiers, spread your banners; the moment has come to distinguish yourselves. i count on your courage to avenge your comrades.’ at the moment that he pronounced these words, five men were struck down near him. he turned with a tranquil air towards the enemy, and said: ‘come, my friends, charge them.’
“i had curiosity enough to listen attentively to his voice, to examine his features. the most courageous man, the hero the most eager for glory, might have been overcome in his situation without any one blaming him. but he was not. in these frightful moments, when fortune seemed to desert him, he was still the bonaparte of arcola and aboukir.”
when desaix came up with his division, bonaparte took an hour to arrange for the final charge. during this time the austrian artillery was thundering upon the army, each volley carrying away whole lines. the men received death without moving from their places, and the ranks closed over the bodies of their comrades. this deadly artillery even reached the cavalry, drawn up behind, as well as a large number of infantry who, encouraged by desaix’s arrival, had hastened back to the field of honor. in spite of the horror of this preparation bonaparte did not falter. when he was ready he led his army in an impetuous charge which overwhelmed the austrians completely, though it cost the french one of their bravest generals, desaix. it was a frightful struggle, but the perfection with which the final attack was planned, won the battle of marengo and drove the austrians from italy.
the parisians were dazzled by the campaign. of the passage of the alps they said, “it is an achievement greater than hannibal’s;” and they repeated how “the first consul had pointed his finger at the frozen summits, and they had bowed their heads.” at the news of marengo the streets were lit with “joy fires,” and from wall to wall rang the cries of vive la république! vive le premier consul! vive l’armée!
102
kléber, 1753 or 1754–1800.
engraved by g. fiesinger, after portrait by guérin.
103the campaign against the austrians was finished december 3, 1800, by the battle of hohenlinden, won by moreau, and in february the treaty of lunéville established peace. england was slower in coming to terms, it not being until march, 1802, that she signed the treaty of amiens.
at last france was at peace with all the world. she hailed napoleon as her savior, and ordered that the 18th brumaire be celebrated throughout the republic as a solemn fête in his honor.
the country saw in him something greater than a peacemaker. she was discovering that he was to be her law giver, for, while ending the wars, he had begun to bring order into the interior chaos which had so long tormented the french people, to re?stablish the finances, the laws, the industries, to restore public works, to encourage the arts and sciences, even to harmonize the interests of rich and poor, of church and state.
104
“lucien bonaparte, president of the council of the five hundred, 18th brumaire, 1799.”
