rapidity of printing—who the first english printer—caxton the first english printer—first english printed book—difficulties of the first printers—ancient bookbinding—the printer a publisher—conditions of cheapness in books.

at the end of the third book of caxton's translation of the 'recuyell of the historyes of troye,' which we have so often quoted, is the following most curious passage: "thus end i this book, which i have translated after mine author, as nigh as god hath given me cunning, to whom be given the laud and praises. and for as much as in the writing of the same my pen is worn, mine hand weary and not stedfast, mine eyen dimmed with overmuch looking on the white paper, and my courage not so prone and ready to labour as it hath been, and that age creepeth on me daily and feebleth all the body; and also because i have promised to divers gentlemen and to my friends to address to them as hastily as i might this said book, therefore i have practised and learned, at my great charge and dispense [expense], to ordain this said book in print, after the manner and form as you may here see; and is not written with pen and ink as other books are, to the end that every man may have them at once. for all the books of this story named the 'recuyell of the historyes of troye,' thus imprinted as ye here see, were begun {86} in one day, and also finished in one day. which book i presented to my said redoubted lady as afore is said, and she hath well accepted it and largely rewarded me." it was customary for the first printers, which is not according to the belief that they wanted to palm their printed books off as manuscripts, to state that they were not drawn or written with a pen and ink. udalricus gallus, who printed at rome about 1470, says, "i, udalricus gallus, without pen or pencil have imprinted this book." but he further says of himself at the end of one of his books,—"i printed thus much in a day; it is not written in a year." it has been held that caxton uses a purely marvellous and hyperbolical mode of expression, when he says, "all the books of this story, thus imprinted as ye here see, were begun in one day and finished in one day." dr. dibdin inquires what caxton meant "by saying that the book was begun and finished in one day? did he wish his countrymen to believe that the translation of le fevre's book was absolutely printed in twenty-four hours?" dr. dibdin truly holds the thing to be impracticable, because the book consisted of seven hundred and seventy-eight folio pages. such feats have been done with the large capital and division of labour of modern times; but to begin and finish such a book in one day in the fifteenth century was certainly an impossibility. we venture to think that caxton says nothing of the sort. he puts with great force and justice the chief advantages of {87} printing,—the rapidity with which many copies could be produced at once. he promised, he says, to divers gentlemen and friends to address to them as hastily as he might this book. there were many who wanted the book. the transcribers could not supply their wants. he could not multiply copies himself with his pen, for his hand was weary and his eyes dim. he learned, therefore, to ordain the book in print, to the end that all his friends might have the books at the same time,—that every man might have them at once; and to explain this, he says, all the books thus imprinted were begun in one day. if he printed a hundred copies, each of the hundred copies was begun at the same time; a hundred sheets, each sheet forming a portion of each copy, were printed off in one day,—and in the same way were they also finished in one day. he does not say, as dr. dibdin interprets the passage, that the book was begun and finished in one day,—one and the same day,—but that all the books were begun on one day, and all the books were finished on another day. his expression is not very clear, but his meaning is quite apparent. this was the end that he sought to obtain at great charge and expense; this is the end which has been more and more obtained at every step forward in the art of printing,—the rapid multiplication of copies, so that all men may have them at once.

the place where caxton learned the art of printing, and the persons of whom he first learned {88} it, are not shown in any of his voluminous prologues and prefaces. but an extraordinary statement was published in the year 1664, by a person of the name of richard atkyns, who sought to prove that printing was a royal prerogative, because, as he says, the art was first brought into england at the cost of the crown. his narrative is held to be altogether a fiction; for the document upon which he rests it was never forthcoming, and no person has ever testified to the knowledge of it, except richard atkyns himself, who laboured hard to obtain a patent from the crown for the sole printing of law-books, upon the ground which he attempts to take of the crown having brought printing into england. "thomas bourchier, archbishop of canterbury, moved the then king, henry vi., to use all possible means for procuring a printing-mould, for so it was then called, to be brought into this kingdom. the king, a good man, and much given to works of this nature, readily hearkened to the motion; and taking private advice how to effect this design, concluded it could not be brought about without great secrecy, and a considerable sum of money given to such person or persons as would draw off some of the workmen from haarlem in holland, where john guttenberg had newly invented it, and was himself personally at work. it was resolved that less than one thousand marks would not produce the desired effect: towards which sum the said archbishop presented the king with three hundred marks. the money being {89} now prepared, the management of the design was committed to mr. robert turnour, who then was keeper of the robes to the king, and a person most in favour with him of any of his condition. mr. turnour took to his assistance mr. caxton, a citizen of good abilities, who, trading much into holland, might be a creditable pretence, as well for his going as staying in the low countries. mr. turnour was in disguise, his beard and hair shaven quite off, but mr. caxton appeared known and public. they having received the sum of one thousand marks, went first to amsterdam, then to leyden, not daring to enter haarlem itself; for the town was very jealous, having imprisoned and apprehended divers persons, who came from other parts for the same purpose. they stayed till they had spent the whole one thousand marks in gifts and expenses. so as the king was fain to send five hundred marks more, mr. turnour having written to the king that he had almost done his work, a bargain, as he said, being struck between him and two hollanders for bringing off one of the workmen, who should sufficiently discover and teach the new art. at last, with much ado, they got off one of the under workmen, whose name was frederick corsells, or rather corsellis; who late one night stole from his fellows in disguise, into a vessel prepared before for that purpose; and so the wind, favouring the design, brought him safe to london. it was not thought so prudent to set him on work at london, but by the archbishop's means, who {90} had been vice-chancellor and afterwards chancellor of the university of oxon, corsellis was carried with a guard to oxon, which constantly watched to prevent corsellis from any possible escape, till he had made good his promise, in teaching how to print. so that at oxford printing was first set up in england." this is certainly an extraordinary story, and one which upon the face of it has traces of inconsistency, if not of imposture. richard atkyns says that a certain worthy person "did present me with a copy of a record and manuscript in lambeth house, heretofore in his custody, belonging to the see, and not to any particular archbishop of canterbury. the substance whereof was this; though i hope, for public satisfaction, the record itself in its due time will appear." the record itself did never appear, and, though diligently sought for, could never be found. but atkyns further stated that the same most worthy person who gave him the copy of the record, trusted him with a book "printed at oxon, a.d. 1468, which was three years before any of the recited authors [stow and others] would allow it [printing] to be in england." he does not mention the book; but there is such a book, and it is entitled 'expositio sancti ieronimi in simbolum, ad papam laurentiam;' and at the end, 'explicit expositio, &c., impressa oxonie, et finita anno dom. mcccclxviii, xvii die decembris.' anthony wood repeats the story of atkyns in his 'history of the university of oxford;' and he adds, "and thus the mystery {91} of printing appeared ten years sooner in the university of oxford than at any other place in europe, haarlem and mentz excepted. not long after there were presses set up in westminster, st. albans, worcester, and other monasteries of note. after this manner printing was introduced into england, by the care of archbishop bourchier, in the year of christ 1464, and the third of king edward iv." wood's version of the story makes it a little, a very little, more credible, for it brings it nearer to the time when the newly discovered art of printing might have attracted some attention in england. but even in 1464 there were, with scarcely more than one exception, no printed books known in europe but the first productions of the press at mentz. the story of caxton going to haarlem in the time of henry the sixth, that is, in some year previous to 1461, must altogether be a fabrication, or a mistake. the accounts that would ascribe the invention of printing to laurence coster, of haarlem, set up a legendary story that john fust, or john guttenberg (not the real guttenberg, but an elder brother), stole the invention from coster and carried it to mentz in 1442. if caxton, therefore, went to haarlem in holland, with a companion, in disguise, to learn the art of printing, he must have gone there before 1442; for the story holds that coster was not only robbed of his secret, but of his types, and gave up printing in despair to his more fortunate spoiler. bourchier was not archbishop of canterbury till 1454. we {92} may be sure, therefore, that, wherever caxton went to learn the art of printing at an earlier period than is generally supposed, he did not go to haarlem in holland. substitute mentz for haarlem, and atkyns's story is more consistent. it is by no means improbable that henry the sixth and cardinal bourchier might have seen the magnificent latin bible, called the mazarine bible, which was printed by guttenberg, schoeffer, and fust, and is held to have appeared about 1455. of this noble book mr. hallam says, "it is a very striking circumstance, that the high-minded inventors of this great art tried at the very outset so bold a flight as the printing an entire bible, and executed it with astonishing success. it was minerva leaping on earth in her divine strength and radiant armour, ready at the moment of her nativity to subdue and destroy her enemies." the king and the archbishop might have desired that england should learn the art of executing so splendid a work as the first bible. at that period we know that caxton was residing abroad, and he was a fit person to be selected for such a commission. but kings at that day were scarcely better supplied with money than their subjects; and if henry the sixth had sent to mr. robert turnour or mr. william caxton seven hundred marks at one time and five hundred at another, the gifts must have been registered with all due formality. we have the exchequer registers of henry the sixth and his great rival; and although we learn that edward {93} the fourth gave caxton twenty pounds, neither his name nor that of mr. tumour, nor even of the archbishop, is associated with any bounty of henry the sixth. we may, therefore, safely conclude, with dr. conyers middleton, with regard to all this story, that "mr. atkyns, a bold vain man, might be the inventor of it, having an interest in imposing upon the world, to confirm his argument that printing was of the prerogative royal, in opposition to the stationers; against whom he was engaged in expensive lawsuits, in defence of the king's patents, under which he claimed some exclusive powers of printing." the date of 1468 on the oxford book is reasonably concluded to have been a typographical error. there are niceties in the printing of that book which did not belong to the earliest stages of the art; and the same type and manner of printing are seen in oxford books printed immediately after 1478. the probability therefore is, that an x was omitted in the roman numerals.

we could scarcely avoid detailing this story, apocryphal as the whole matter is upon the face of it, because the claims of oxford to the honour of the first printing-press were once the subject of a fierce controversy. the honest antiquarian oldys complains most bitterly of richard atkyns, "how unwarrantably he robbed master caxton of the honour, wherewith he had long been, by the suffrage of all learned men, undeniably invested, of first introducing and practising this most scientifical {94} invention among us." but had this story been true, caxton would not have been robbed of his glory. he would still have been what leland, writing within half a century of his death, calls him, "angli? prototypographus"—the first printer of england. for it is not the man who is the accidental instrument of introducing a great invention, and then pursues it no further, who is to have the fame of its promulgation. it is he who by patient and assiduous labour acquires the mastery of a new principle, sees afar off the high objects to which it may be applied, carries out its details with persevering courage, is not deterred by failure nor satisfied with partial success, works for a great purpose through long years of anxiety, is careless of honours or rewards, and finally does accomplish all and much more than he proposed, planting the tree, training it, rejoicing in its good fruit,—he it is that is the real first introducer and practiser of a great scientific invention, even though some one may have preceded him in some similar attempt—an experiment, but not a perfect work. we may well believe that, for some ten years of his residence abroad, the knowledge that a new art was discovered, promising such mighty results as that of printing, must have excited the deepest interest in the mind of caxton. he says himself, in his continuation of the polychronicon, "about this time [1455] the craft of imprinting was first found in mogunce in almayne." during his residence at the court of burgundy he would see the art multiplying {95} around him. italy, where it most extensively flourished before 1470, was too distant for his personal inspection. bamberg, augsburg, and strasburg brought it nearer to him. but cologne, where conrad winters set up a press about 1470, was very near at hand. a few days' journey would place him within the walls of the holy city of the rhine. cologne, we have no doubt, fixed the employment of the remainder of his life; and made the london mercer, whose name, like the names of many other good and respectable men, would have held no place in the memory of the world but for the art he learnt in his latter years,—cologne rendered the name of caxton a bright and venerable name;—a name that even his countrymen, who are accustomed chiefly to raise columns and statues to the warlike defenders of their country, will one day honour amongst the heroes who have most successfully cultivated the arts of peace, and by high talent and patient labour have rendered it impossible that mankind should not steadily advance in the acquisition of knowledge and virtue, and in the consequent amelioration of the lot of every member of the family of mankind, at some period, present or remote.

the provost of the city of mentz, on the occasion of the festival of guttenberg, published an address full of german enthusiasm, at which we may be apt to smile, but which breathes a spirit of reverence for the higher concerns of our being which we might profitably engraft upon the practical {96} good sense on which we pride ourselves. he says, "if the mortal who invented that method of fixing the fugitive sounds of words which we call the alphabet has operated upon mankind like a divinity, so also has guttenberg's genius brought together the once isolated inquirers, teachers, and learners—all the scattered and divided efforts for extending god's kingdom over the whole civilized earth—as though beneath one temple. guttenberg's invention, not a lucky accident, but the golden fruit of a well-considered idea—an invention made with a perfect consciousness of its end—has above all other causes, for more than four centuries, urged forward and established the dominion of science; and what is of the most importance, has immeasurably advanced the mental formation and education of the people. this invention, a true intellectual sun, has mounted above the horizon, first of the european christians, and then of the people of other climes and other faiths, to an ever-enduring morning. it has made the return of barbarism, the isolation of mankind, the reign of darkness, impossible for all future times. it has established a public opinion, a court of moral judicature common to all civilized nations, whatever natural divisions may separate them, as much as for the provinces of one and the same state. in a word, it has formed fellow labourers at the never-resting loom of christian european civilization in every quarter of the world, in almost every island of the ocean."

{97}

filled with some such strong belief, although perhaps a vague belief, of the blessings which printing might bestow upon his own country, we may view william caxton proceeding, about the end of 1470, to the city of cologne, resolved to acquire the art of which he had seen some of the effects, without stint of labour or expense. that he was an apt and diligent scholar his after works abundantly prove.

the first book printed in the english language, the 'recueil of the histories of troy,' which we have so often noticed, does not bear upon the face of it when and where it was printed. that it was printed by caxton we can have no doubt, because he says, "i have practised and learned, at my great charge and dispense, to ordain this said book in print." he tells us, too, in the title-page, that the translation was finished at cologne, in september, 1471. that caxton printed at cologne we have tolerably clear evidence. there is a most curious book of natural history, originally written in latin by bartholomew glanvill, a franciscan friar of the fourteenth century, commonly known as bartholom?us. a translation of this book, which is called 'de proprietatibus rerum,' was printed in england by wynkyn de worde, who was an assistant to caxton in his printing-office at westminster, and there succeeded to him. in some quaint stanzas which occur in this edition, and which appear to be written either by or in the name of the printer, are these lines, which we {98} copy, in the first instance, exactly following the orthography and non-punctuation of the original:—

"and also of your charyte call to remembraunce

the soule of william caxton first pr?ter of this boke

jn laten tonge at coleyn h?self to auauce

that euery well disposyd man may theron loke."

that we are asked to call to remembrance the soul of william caxton is perfectly clear; but how are we to read the subsequent members of the sentence? the most obvious meaning appears to be that william caxton was the first printer of this book in the latin tongue; that he printed it at cologne; and that his object in printing it was to advance or profit himself, in addition to his desire that every well-disposed man might look upon it. but there is another interpretation of these words, which is certainly not a forced one;—that william caxton was the first printer of this book, the english book, and that the object of his printing it was to advance himself in the latin tongue at cologne. "this book" would appear then to be, this english book, this same book. if a copy of this book, whether in latin or english, printed at cologne at so early a period, could be found, the question would be set at rest. there is a latin edition printed at cologne, in 1481, by john koelhoff; and there is an edition in latin without date or place. the first english edition known is that by wynkyn de worde, and that translation was made much earlier than the time of caxton, by john de trevisa. caxton could scarcely have been said to {99} have desired to have advanced himself in the latin tongue, unless he had translated the book as well as printed it. the mere fact of superintending workmen who set up the types in latin would have done little to advance his knowledge of the language. we believe, therefore, that we must receive the obscure lines of wynkyn de worde as evidence that caxton did print at cologne, and that he undertook the latin edition of bartholom?us as a commercial speculation, "himself to advance," or profit.

and, indeed, when we look at the state of england after the return of edward iv. from his exile,—the "great divisions" of which caxton himself speaks,—we may consider that he acted with discretion in conducting his first printing operations in a german city. it must be also borne in mind that this was by far the readiest mode to obtain a competent knowledge in the new art. had he come over to england with types and presses, and even with the most skilful workmen, the probability is that the man of letters who, two or three years before, had little or nothing to do in his attendance upon the burgundian court, would have ill succeeded in so complicated and difficult a commercial enterprise. lambinet, a french bibliographical writer, tells us that melchior de stamham, wishing to establish a printing-office at augsburg, engaged a skilful workman of the same town, of the name of sauerloch. he employed a whole year in making the necessary preparations for his office. he {100} bought five presses, of the materials of which he constructed five other presses. he cast pewter types, and, having spent a large sum, seven hundred and two florins, in establishing his office, began working in 1473. he died before he had completed one book; heartbroken, probably, at the amount of capital he had sunk; for his unfinished book was sold off at a mere trifle, and his office broken up. this statement, which rests upon some ancient testimony, shows us something of the difficulties which had to be encountered by the early printers. they had to do everything for themselves; to construct the materials of their art, types, presses, and every other instrument and appliance. when caxton began to print at cologne, he probably had the means of obtaining a set of moulds from some previous printer,—what are called strikes from the punches that form the original matrices. the writers upon typography seem to assume the necessity of every one of the old printers cutting his punches anew, and shaping his letters according to his own notions of proportionate beauty. that the great masters of their art, the first inventors, the italian printers, the alduses, the stephenses, pursued this course is perfectly clear. but when printing ceased to be a mystery, about 1462, it is more than probable that those who tried to set up a press, especially in germany, either bought a few types of the more established printers, or obtained a readier means of casting types than that of cutting new punches,—a {101} difficult and expensive operation. thus we believe the attempts to assign a book without a printer's name to some printer whose types that book resembles, can be little relied upon. caxton's types are held to be like the type of this printer and the type of that; and it is said that he copied the types, with the objection added that he did not copy the best models. what should have prevented him buying the types from the continent, as every english printer did until the middle of the last century? or at any rate what should have prevented him buying copies of the moulds which other printers were using? the bas-relief upon thorwaldsen's statue of guttenberg exhibits the first printer examining a matrix. but all the difficulties in the formation of the first matrix overcome, we may readily see that, at every stage, the art of making fusile types would become easier and simpler, till at length the division of labour should be perfectly applied to type-making, and the mere casting of a letter, as each letter is cast singly, exhibit one of the most rapid and beautiful pieces of handiwork that the arts can show.

but the type obtained, caxton would still have much to do before his office was furnished. we have seen how melchior of augsburg set about getting his presses: "he bought of john schuesseler five presses, which cost him seventy-three rhenish florins: he constructed with these materials five other smaller presses." to those who know what a well-adjusted machine the commonest {102} printing-press now in use is, it is not easy at first to conceive what is meant by saying that melchior bought five presses, and made five other presses out of the materials. the solution is this:—in all probability this printer of augsburg bought five old wine-presses, and, using the screws, cut them down and adapted them to the special purpose for which he designed them. the earliest printing-press was nothing more than a common screw-press,—such as a cheese-press, or a napkin-press,—with a contrivance for running the form of types under the screw after the form was inked. it is evident that this mode of obtaining an impression must have been very laborious and very slow. as the screw must have come down upon the types with a dead pull,—that is, as the table upon which the types were placed was solid and unyielding,—great care must have been required to prevent the pressure being so hard as to injure the face of the letters.

a famous printer, jodocus badius ascensianus, has exhibited his press in the title-page of a book printed by him in 1498. up to the middle of the last century this rude press was in use in england; although the press of an ingenious dutch mechanic, blaew,—in which the pressure was rapidly communicated from the screw to the types, and all the parts of the press were yielding so as to produce a sharp but not a crushing impression,—was gradually superseding it. the early printers manufactured their own ink, so that caxton had to learn the art of ink-making. the ink was applied to the types {103} by balls, or dabbers, such as one of the men holds who is working the press of badius. such dabbers were universally used in printing forty years ago. as the ancient weaver was expected to make his own loom, so, even this short time since, the division of labour was so imperfectly applied to printing, that the pressman was expected to make his own balls. a very rude and nasty process this was. the sheepskins, called pelts, were prepared in the printing-office, where the wool with which they were stuffed was also carded; and these balls, thus manufactured by a man whose general work was entirely of a different nature, required the expenditure of at least half an hour's labour every day in a very disagreeable operation, by which they were kept soft.

there were many other little niceties in the home construction of the materials for printing which caxton would necessarily have to learn. but in the earlier stages of an art requiring such nice arrangement, both in the departments of the compositor, or setter-up of the type, and of the pressman, it is quite clear that many things which, by the habit of four centuries, have become familiar and easy in a printing-office, would be exceedingly difficult to be acquired by the first printers. rapidity in the work was probably out of the question. accidents must constantly have occurred in wedging up the single letters tightly in pages and sheets; and when one looks at the regularity of the inking of these old books, and the beautiful accuracy with {104} which the line on one side of a page falls on the corresponding line on the other side (called by printers "register"), we maybe sure that with very imperfect mechanical means an amount of care was taken in working off the sheets which would appear ludicrous to a modern pressman. the higher operation of a printing-office, which consists in reading the proofs, must have been in the first instance full of embarrassment and difficulty. a scholar was doubtless employed to test the accuracy {105} of the proofs; probably some one who had been previously employed to overlook the labours of the transcribers. fierce must have been the indignation of such a one during a course of painful experience, when he found one letter presented for another, letters and even syllables and words omitted, letters topsy-turvy, and even actual substitutions of one word for another. these are almost unavoidable consequences of the mechanical operation of arranging moveable types, so entirely different from the work of the transcriber. the corrector of the press would not understand this; and his life would not be a pleasant one. caxton was no doubt the corrector of his own press; and well for him it was that he brought to his task the patience, industry, and good temper which are manifest in his writings.

ancient-press

ancient press.

but the ancient printer had something more to do before his manufacture was complete. he was a bookbinder as well as a printer. the ancient books, manuscript as well as printed, were wonderful specimens of patient labour. the board, literally a wooden board, between which the leaves were fastened, was as thick as the panel of a door. this was covered with leather, sometimes embossed with the most ingenious devices. there were large brass nails, with ornamented heads, on the outside of this cover, with magnificent corners to the lids. in addition, there were clasps. the back was rendered solid with paste and glue, so as to last for centuries. erasmus says of such a book, "as for {106} thomas aquinas's secunda secund?, no man can carry it about, much less get it into his head." an ancient woodcut shows us the binder hammering at the leaves to make them flat, and a lad sewing the leaves in a frame very like that still in use. above are the books flying in the air in all their solid glory.

but the most difficult labour of the ancient printer, and that which would necessarily constitute the great distinction between one printer and another, was yet to come. he had to sell his books when he had manufactured them, for there was no division of the labour of publisher and printer in those days. his success would of course much depend upon the quality of his books; upon their adaptation to the nature of the demand for books; upon their accuracy; upon their approach to the beauty of the old manuscripts. but he had to incur the risk common to all copying processes, whether the thing produced be a medal or a book, of expending a large certain sum before a single copy could be produced. the process of printing, compared with that of writing, is a cheap process as ordinarily conducted; but the condition of cheapness is this,—that a sufficient number of copies of any particular book may be reckoned upon as saleable, so as to render the proportion of the first expense upon a single copy inconsiderable. if it were required even at the present time to print a single copy, or even three or four copies only, of any literary work, the cost of printing {107} would be greater than the cost of transcribing. it is when hundreds, and especially thousands, of the same work are demanded, that the great value of the printing-press in making knowledge cheap is particularly shown. it is probable that the first printers did not take off more than two or three hundred, if so many, of their works; and, therefore, the earliest printed books must have been still dear, on account of the limited number of their readers. caxton, as it appears by a passage in one of his books, was a cautious printer; and required something like an assurance that he should sell enough of any particular book to repay the cost of producing it. in his 'legend of saints' he says, "i have submysed [submitted] myself to translate into english the 'legend of saints,' called 'legenda aurea' in latin; and william, earl of arundel, desired me—and promised to take a reasonable quantity of them—and sent me a worshipful gentleman, promising that my said lord should during my life give and grant to me a yearly fee, that is to note, a buck in summer and a doe in winter." caxton, with his sale of a reasonable quantity, and his summer and winter venison, was more fortunate than others of his brethren, who speculated upon a public demand for books without any guarantee from the great and wealthy. sweynheim and pannartz, germans who settled in rome, and there printed many beautiful editions of the latin classics, presented a petition to the pope, in 1471, which contains the following passage:—"we {108} were the first of the germans who introduced this art, with vast labour and cost, into your holiness' territories, in the time of your predecessor; and encouraged by our example other printers to do the same. if you peruse the catalogue of the works printed by us, you will admire how and where we could procure a sufficient quantity of paper, or even rags, for such a number of volumes. the total of these books amounts to 12,475,—a prodigious heap,—and intolerable to us, your holiness' printers, by reason of those unsold. we are no longer able to bear the great expense of housekeeping, for want of buyers; of which there cannot be a more flagrant proof than that our house, though otherwise spacious enough, is full of quire-books, but void of every necessary of life." for some years after the invention of printing, many of the ingenious, learned, and enterprising men who devoted themselves to the new art which was to change the face of society, were ruined, because they could not sell cheaply unless they printed considerable number of a book; and there were not readers enough to take off the stock which they thus accumulated. in time, however, as the facilities for acquiring knowledge which printing afforded created many readers, the trade of printing books became one of less general risk; and dealers in literature could afford more and more to dispense with individual patronage, and rely upon the public demand.