the ancient religion of accadia akin to shamanism.—demon theory of disease in chald?an medicine.—chald?an magic.—medical ignorance of the babylonians.—assyrian disease-demons.—charms.—origin of the sabbath.
chald?a was probably only second to egypt in the antiquity of its civilization. the founders of the babylonian and assyrian empires were a semitic tribe, and were the first people who worked in metals, and their knowledge of astronomy proves them to have been possessed of some amount of scientific attainments. their practice of medicine was inextricably mixed with conjurations of spirits, magic, and astrology.
the name now given to the primitive inhabitants of babylon is accadians. sayce considers them to have been the earliest civilizers of eastern asia. from the accadians, he thinks the assyrians, ph?nicians, and greeks derived their knowledge of philosophy and the arts. their libraries existed seventeen centuries b.c.
the ancient religion of accad was very similar to the shamanism professed by siberian and samoyed tribes at the present time. there was believed to be a spirit in every object. good or bad spirits swarmed in the world, and there was scarcely anything that could be done which might not risk demoniacal possession. these good and bad spirits were controlled by priests and sorcerers. all diseases were caused by evil spirits, and the bulls and other creatures which guarded the entrance to houses were there to protect them from their power. the priests were magicians. there were at one period of the development of the babylonian mythology three hundred spirits of heaven and six hundred spirits of earth; the most dreadful of these latter were the “seven spirits,” who were born without father and mother, and brought plague and evil on the earth. magic formul? for warding off the attacks of demons were commonly used, and charms and talismans were extensively employed. the phylacteries of the jews were talismans, and were of accadian origin. the sorcerer bound his charm,87 “knotted with seven knots, round the limbs of the sick man, and this, with the further application of holy water, would, it was believed, infallibly produce a cure; while the same result might be brought about by fixing a sentence out of a good book on the sufferer’s head as he lay in bed.”202
accadian literature, mr. george smith tells us, is rich in collections of charms and formul? of exorcism belonging to the very earliest period of babylonian history. there are magic formul? of all kinds, some to ward off sorcery, some to bewitch other persons.
the following is a specimen of the exorcisms used to drive away evil spirits, and to cure the diseases which were believed to be caused by their agency:—
“the noxious god, the noxious spirit of the neck, the spirit of the desert, the spirit of the mountain, the spirit of the sea, the spirit of the morass, the noxious cherub of the city, this noxious wind which seizes the body (and) the health of the body: o, spirit of heaven, remember! o, spirit of earth, remember!
“the burning spirit of the neck which seizes the man, the burning spirit which seizes the man, the spirit which works evil, the creation of the evil spirit: o, spirit of heaven, remember! o, spirit of earth, remember!
“wasting, want of health, the evil spirit of the ulcer, spreading quinsey of the gullet, the violent ulcer, the noxious ulcer: o, spirit of heaven, remember! o, spirit of earth, remember!
“sickness of the entrails, sickness of the heart, the palpitation of a sick heart, sickness of bile, sickness of the head, noxious colic, the agitation of terror, flatulency of the entrails, noxious illness, lingering sickness, nightmare: o, spirit of heaven, remember! o, spirit of earth, remember!”203
in the great magic collection of invocations copied by the order of asurbanipal, we have a long litany on the “spirit of fever”; the lords and ladies of the earth, stars, the light of life, the spirit of hurki and his talismanic ship, the spirit of utu, umpire of the gods, and many others are implored to “conjure it.”204
professor lenormant considers that the idea of punishment of sin by means of disease was a dogma of a later school of chald?an thought. the old religion of spirits upon which chald?an magic was originally founded was independently the doctrine of the priests of magic, so that there were two sets of priests in later chald?an civilization—the old class who composed incantations to the spirits who88 fought with and replaced the disease-demons, and the theological priests who urged repentance for sin as the only means of the cure of disease.205
in the accadian philosophy there was in everything a dualism of spirits. innumerable hosts of them caused all the phenomena of nature, from the movements of the stars to the life and death, the health and disease of every human being. this dualism was as marked as that of the religion of zoroaster; everywhere and in everything the good spirits fought against the evil ones, discord prevailed throughout the universe; and on this conception rested the whole theory of sacred magic. man’s only help against the attacks of bad spirits, and the plagues and diseases which they brought upon him, lay in the invocation of good spirits by means of priests, sacred rites, talismans, and charms. these could put to flight the demons by helping the good spirits in their constant warfare with them. magic therefore became a system elaborated with scientific exactness, and a vast pantheon of gods became necessary. hea was the great god of conjurational magic; he was the supreme protector of men and of nature in the war between good and evil. when neither word, nor rite, nor talisman, nor help of the other divinities of heaven availed to help mankind, hea was all-powerful; and this was because, as lenormant says,206 hea was alone acquainted with the awful power of the supreme name. “before this name everything bows in heaven and in earth and in hades, and it alone can conquer the maskim (a species of evil demon), and stop their ravages. the gods themselves are enthralled by this name, and render it obedience.”
images of demons were used by the chald?ans as talismans against the attacks of demons. in a magical hymn to the sun against sorcery and witchcraft, and their influence on the worshipper, the sun is reminded that the images of the bad spirits have been shut up in heaps of corn. the invocation concludes:—
“may the great gods, who have created me, take my hand! thou who curest my face, direct my hand, direct it, lord, light of the universe, sun.”207
in a hymn composed for the cure of some disease, the priest, addressing the god, speaks of the invalid in the third person:—
“as for me, the lord has sent me, the great lord, hea, has sent me.———
thou, at thy coming, cure the race of man, cause a ray of health to shine upon him, cure his disease.
89
the man, son of his god, is burdened with the load of his omissions and transgressions.
his feet and his hands suffer cruelly, he is painfully exhausted by the disease.
sun, at the raising of my hands, come at the call, eat his food, absorb his victim, turn his weakness into strength.”208
in the “war of the seven wicked spirits against the moon,” we have an incantation which was destined to cure the king of a disease caused by the wicked spirits.209
in the chald?an creed all diseases were the work of demons. this is why herodotus found no physicians in babylon and assyria. there was no science of medicine; “it was simply a branch of magic, and was practised by incantations, exorcism, the use of philters and enchanted drinks.”210
of course the priests made it their business to compound their drinks of such drugs as they had discovered to possess therapeutic virtue. in ancient times magic and medicine were thus closely united. it could not have been always faith alone which cured the patient, but faith plus a little poppy juice would work wonders in many cases. it became therefore greatly to the interest of the priests and magicians to learn the properties of herbs, and the value of the juices and extracts of plants. out of evil, therefore, mankind reaped this great and valuable knowledge. the two gravest and most fatal diseases with which the chald?ans were acquainted, says m. lenormant,211 were the plague and fever, the namtar and the idpa. naturally they were represented as two demons, the strongest and most formidable who afflict mankind. an old fragment says:—
the execrable idpa acts upon the head of man,
the malevolent namtar upon the life of man,
the malevolent utug upon the forehead of man,
the malevolent alal upon the chest of man,
the malevolent gigim upon the bowels of man,
the malevolent telal upon the hand of man.212
the use of magic knots as a cure for diseases was firmly believed in by the ancient chaldees. m. lenormant213 gives a translation of one of the formul? supposed to have been used against diseases of the head.
knot on the right and arrange flat in regular bands, on the left a woman’s diadem;
divide it twice in seven little bands; ...
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gird the head of the invalid with it;
gird the forehead of the invalid with it;
gird the seat of life with it;
gird his hands and his feet;
seat him on his bed;
pour on him enchanted waters.
let the disease of his head be carried away into the heavens like a violent wind; ...
may the earth swallow it up like passing waters!
sir henry rawlinson has discovered that there were three classes of chald?an doctors, exactly in accordance with the enumeration of the prophet daniel. these were the khartumim, or conjurors, the chakamim, or physicians, and the asaphim, or theosophists (see daniel ii. 2; v. ii).
the babylonian doctrine of disease was that the hosts of evil spirits in the air entered man’s body, and could only be expelled by the incantations of the exorcist. these disease-demons were addressed as “the noxious neck spirit,” “the burning spirit of the entrails which devours the man.” headache was caused by evil spirits which were commanded by the charmer to fly away “like grasshoppers” into the sky.214
herodotus says of the babylonians: “the following custom seems to me the wisest of their institutions. they have no physicians, but when a man is ill, they lay him in the public square, and the passers-by come up to him, and if they have ever had his disease themselves, or have known any one who has suffered from it, they give him advice, recommending him to do whatever they found good in their own case, or in the case known to them; and no one is allowed to pass the sick man in silence without asking him what his ailment is.”215
a babylonian exorcism of disease-demons has been found in the following terms: the translation is by prof. sayce.216
“on the sick man, by means of sacrifice, may perfect health shine like bronze; may the sun-god give this man life; may merodach, the eldest son of the deep, give him strength, prosperity, and health; may the king of heaven preserve, may the king of earth preserve.”
a curse against a sorcerer declares that “by written spells he shall not be delivered.”
the elementary spirits were supposed to be seven baleful winds, which were considered general causes of disease. one of the formul?91 of exorcising these dreadful seven is translated by mr. smith from a great collection of hymns to the gods which was compiled b.c. 2000.
“seven (are) they, seven (are) they.
in the abyss of the deep seven (are) they.
in the brightness of heaven seven (are) they.
in the abyss of the deep in a palace (was) their growth.
male they (are) not, female they (are) not.
moreover the deep (is) their pathway.
wife they have not, child is not born to them.
law (and) kindness know they not.
prayer and supplication hear they not.
(among) the thorns of the mountain (was) their growth.
to hea (the god of the sea) (are) they hostile.
the throne-bearers of the gods (are) they.
disturbing the watercourse in the canal are they set.
wicked (are) they, wicked (are) they.
seven (are) they, seven (are) they, seven twice again are they.”217
m. lenormant gives a translation of a very long accadian incantation against disease-demons; it is in the form of a litany, and each verse ends with the words:—
“spirit of the heavens, conjure it! spirit of the earth, conjure it!”
there are some twenty-eight verses in all, and a great number of diseases are mentioned. i have only space for a few of these.
“ulcers which spread, malignant ulcers.”
“disease of the bowels, the disease of the heart, the palpitation of the diseased heart,
disease of the vision, disease of the head,” etc.
“painful fever, violent fever,
the fever which never leaves man,
unremitting fever,
the lingering fever, malignant fever.
spirit of the heavens, conjure it,” etc., etc.
in the assyrian version it seems to be hinted that the expectoration of phthisical patients was as dangerous as our modern bacteriologists declare it to be, for we have these words:—
“the poisonous consumption which in the mouth malignantly ascends.”218
in the course of layard’s excavations at nineveh, a divining chamber was discovered, at the entrance to which figures of the magi were found. one of the orders of these magicians was the “mecasphim,” translated by jerome and the greeks “enchanters,” such as used noxious herbs and drugs, the blood of victims, and the bones of the92 dead for their superstitious rites. another class was the “casdim,” who were a sort of philosophers, who were exempt from all employment except the duty of studying physic, astrology, the foretelling of future events, the interpretation of dreams by augury, etc.219
the assyrians had different demons for different diseases—some injured the head, others attacked the hands and feet.220
the assyrians believed that seven evil spirits might enter a man at the same time; and there is a tablet which tells of the protection afforded by a god against such demons. when the deity stands at the sick man’s bedside, “those seven evil spirits he shall root out, and shall expel them from his body, and those seven shall never return to the sick man again.”221
“sometimes images of the gods were brought into the sick-room, and written texts from the holy books were put on the walls, and bound round the sick man’s brains. holy texts were spread out on each side of the threshold.”222
in mr. george smith’s history of assyria from the monuments, there is a translation of an assyrian tablet from assur-bani-pal’s library. the tablet is on the charms to expel evil curses and spells. “it is supposed in it,” says mr. smith, “that a man was under a curse, and merodach, one of the gods, seeing him next to the god hea, his father, enquired how to cure him. hea, the god of wisdom, in answer related the ceremonies and incantations for effecting his recovery, and these are recorded in the tablet for the benefit of the faithful in after times.”
translation of tablet.
1. the evil curse like a demon fixes on a man
2. a raging voice over him is fixed
3. an evil voice over him is fixed
4. the evil curse is a great calamity
5. that man the evil curse slaughters like a lamb
6. his god from over him departs
7. his goddess stands angry at his side
8. the raging voice like a cloak covers him and bears him away
9. the god merodach saw him and
10. to his father hea into the house he entered and said 93
11. my father, the evil curse like a demon fixes on a man
12. and a second time he spake to him
13. to cure that man i am not able, explain to me how to do it.
14. hea to his son merodach answered
15. my son, thou knowest not how, i will recount to thee how to do it,
16. merodach, thou knowest not how, i will reveal to thee how to do it,
17. what i know, thou shalt know.
18. go my son merodach.
19. pure — — — carry to him
20. that spell break, and that spell remove.
21. from the curse of his father
22. from the curse of his mother
23. from the curse of his elder brother
24. from the curse of the incantation which the man does not know
25. the spell in the words of the lips of the god hea
26. like a plant break
27. like a fruit crush
28. like a branch split.
29. for the spell the invocation of heaven may he repeat the invocation of earth may he repeat
30. thus: like unto this plant which is broken may be the spell.
31. in the burning flames it burns
32. in fragments it shall not be collected
33. together or divided it shall not be used
34. its fragments the earth shall not take
35. its seeds shall not produce and the sun shall not raise them
36. for the festival of god and king it shall not be used
37. — — — — — — — — — — — — —
38. the evil invocation, the finger pointing, the marking, the cursing, the sinning,
39. the evil which in my body, my limbs and my teeth is fixed,
40. like this plant may it be broken and
41. in this day may the burning flames consume,
42. may it drive out the spell and i shall be free
43. thus: like unto this fruit which is crushed may be the spell,
44. in the burning flames it burns
45. to its severed stalk it shall not return
46. for the banquet of god and king it shall not be used
47. — — — — — — — — — — — — — 9448. the evil invocation, the finger pointing, the marking, the cursing, the sinning.
49. the evil which in my body, my limbs and my teeth is fixed
50. like this fruit may it be crushed and
51. in this day may the burning flames consume,
52. may it drive out the spell and i shall be free
53. thus: like unto this branch which is split may be the spell,
54. in the burning flames it burns
55. its fibres to the trunk shall not return
56. to satisfy a wish it shall not come
57. — — — — — — — — — — — — —
58. the evil invocation, the finger pointing, the marking, the cursing, the sinning.
59. the evil which in my body, my limbs and my teeth is fixed
60. like this branch may it be split and
61. in this day may the burning flames consume_
62. may it drive out the spell and i shall be free
63. thus: like unto this wool which is torn may be the spell,
64. in the burning flames it burns
65. to the back of the sheep it shall not return
66. for the clothing of god and king it shall not be used
67. — — — — — — — — — — — — —
68. the evil invocation, the finger pointing, the marking, the cursing, the sinning.
69. the evil which in my body, my limbs and my teeth is fixed
70. like this wool may it be torn and
71. in this day may the burning flames consume
72. may it drive out the spell and i shall be free
73. thus: like unto this flag which is torn may be the spell,
74. in the burning flames it burns
75. on to its mast it shall not return
76. to satisfy a wish it shall not come
77. — — — — — — — — — — — — —
78. the evil invocation, the finger pointing, the marking, the cursing, the sinning.
79. the evil which in my body, my limbs and my teeth is fixed
80. like this flag may it be torn and
81. in this day may the burning flames consume
82. may it drive out the spell and i shall be free
83. thus: like unto this thread which is broken may be the spell,
84. in the burning flames it burns
85. the weaver into a cloak shall not weave it
86. for the clothing of god and king it shall not be used
9587. — — — — — — — — — — — — —
88. the evil invocation, the finger pointing, the marking, the cursing, the sinning.
89. the evil which in my body, my limbs and my teeth is fixed.
90. like this thread may it be broken and
91. in this day may the burning flames consume
92. may it drive out the spell and i shall be free.
the image of hea placed in the doorway kept away the disease-demons.
in the babylonian and assyrian rooms of the british museum there is a collection of bowls inscribed with charms in chaldee, syriac, and mandaitie. it is supposed that they were used by sick persons, who drank their physic from them, trusting that it would thereby be more efficacious. as they drank they recited the formul? and names of the archangels, michael, raphael, ariel, shaltiel, malkiel, etc., which were inscribed upon them. the catalogue says that the earliest of these bowls were made about b.c. 200. many are from tell-ibrahim (cutha). it may be mentioned in this connection that catholics frequently make the sign of the cross over medicinal potions before taking them.
the origin of the sabbath as a day of cessation from all labour is evidently accadian. in the following translation of an assyrian tablet223 we find the sabbatarian principle in full force.
“the seventh day, feast of merodach and zir: panibu, a great feast, a day of rest. the prince of the people will eat neither the flesh of birds nor cooked fruits. he will not change his clothing. he will put on no white robe. he will bring no offering. the king will not ascend into his chariot. he will not perform his duties as royal law-giver. in a garrison city the commander will permit no proclamations to his soldiers. the art of the physician will not be practised.” this is another proof that the jews derived many of their religious customs from the assyrians and accadians. the assyrian sabbath was evidently observed as strictly as under the mosaic code. it is curious to note that the physician was not permitted to exercise his merciful calling on that day, and it throws light on the objection of the jews to christ that it was not lawful to heal on the sabbath-day.
