when cyrus had brought his life to an end, cambyses received the royal power in succession, being the son of cyrus and of cassandane the daughter of pharnaspes, for whose death, which came about before his own, cyrus had made great mourning himself and also had proclaimed to all those over whom he bore rule that they should make mourning for her: cambyses, i say, being the son of this woman and of cyrus, regarded the ionians and aiolians as slaves inherited from his father; and he proceeded to march an army against egypt, taking with him as helpers not only other nations of which he was ruler, but also those of the hellenes over whom he had power besides.

now the egyptians, before the time when psammetichos became king over them, were wont to suppose that they had come into being first of all men; but since the time when psammetichos having become king desired to know what men had come into being first, they suppose that the phrygians came into being before themselves, but they themselves before all other men. now psammetichos, when he was not able by inquiry to find out any means of knowing who had come into being first of all men, contrived a device of the following kind:—taking two newborn children belonging to persons of the common sort he gave them to a shepherd to bring up at the place where his flocks were, with a manner of bringing up such as i shall say, charging him namely that no man should utter any word in their presence, and that they should be placed by themselves in a room where none might come, and at the proper time he should bring them she-goats, and when he had satisfied them with milk he should do for them whatever else was needed. these things psammetichos did and gave him this charge wishing to hear what word the children would let break forth first after they had ceased from wailings without sense. and accordingly it came to pass; for after a space of two years had gone by, during which the shepherd went on acting so, at length, when he opened the door and entered, both children fell before him in entreaty and uttered the word bekos, stretching forth their hands. at first when he heard this the shepherd kept silence; but since this word was often repeated, as he visited them constantly and attended to them, at last he declared the matter to his master, and at his command he brought the children before his face. then psammetichos having himself also heard it, began to inquire what nation of men named anything bekos, and inquiring he found that the phrygians had this name for bread. in this manner and guided by an indication such as this, the egyptians were brought to allow that the phrygians were a more ancient people than themselves. that so it came to pass i heard from the priests of that hephaistos who dwells at memphis; but the hellenes relate, besides many other idle tales, that psammetichos cut out the tongues of certain women and then caused the children to live with these women.

with regard then to the rearing of the children they related so much as i have said: and i heard also other things at memphis when i had speech with the priests of hephaistos. moreover i visited both thebes and heliopolis for this very cause, namely because i wished to know whether the priests at these places would agree in their accounts with those at memphis; for the men of heliopolis are said to be the most learned in records of the egyptians. those of their narrations which i heard with regard to the gods i am not earnest to relate in full, but i shall name them only because i consider that all men are equally ignorant of these matters: and whatever things of them i may record i shall record only because i am compelled by the course of the story. but as to those matters which concern men, the priests agreed with one another in saying that the egyptians were the first of all men on earth to find out the course of the year, having divided the seasons into twelve parts to make up the whole; and this they said they found out from the stars: and they reckon to this extent more wisely than the hellenes, as it seems to me, inasmuch as the hellenes throw in an intercalated month every other year, to make the seasons right, whereas the egyptians, reckoning the twelve months at thirty days each, bring in also every year five days beyond number, and thus the circle of their season is completed and comes round to the same point whence it set out. they said moreover that the egyptians were the first who brought into use appellations for the twelve gods and the hellenes took up the use from them; and that they were the first who assigned altars and images and temples to the gods, and who engraved figures on stones; and with regard to the greater number of these things they showed me by actual facts that they had happened so. they said also that the first man who became king of egypt was min; and that in his time all egypt except the district of thebes was a swamp, and none of the regions were then above water which now lie below the lake of moiris, to which lake it is a voyage of seven days up the river from the sea: and i thought that they said well about the land; for it is manifest in truth even to a person who has not heard it beforehand but has only seen, at least if he have understanding, that the egypt to which the hellenes come in ships is a land which has been won by the egyptians as an addition, and that it is a gift of the river: moreover the regions which lie above this lake also for a distance of three days' sail, about which they did not go on to say anything of this kind, are nevertheless another instance of the same thing: for the nature of the land of egypt is as follows:—first when you are still approaching it in a ship and are distant a day's run from the land, if you let down a sounding-line you will bring up mud and you will find yourself in eleven fathoms. this then so far shows that there is a silting forward of the land. then secondly, as to egypt itself, the extent of it along the sea is sixty schoines, according to our definition of egypt as extending from the gulf of plinthine to the serbonian lake, along which stretches mount casion; from this lake then the sixty schoines are reckoned: for those of men who are poor in land have their country measured by fathoms, those who are less poor by furlongs, those who have much land by parasangs, and those who have land in very great abundance by schoines: now the parasang is equal to thirty furlongs, and each schoine, which is an egyptian measure, is equal to sixty furlongs. so there would be an extent of three thousand six hundred furlongs for the coast-land of egypt. from thence and as far as heliopolis inland egypt is broad, and the land is all flat and without springs of water and formed of mud: and the road as one goes inland from the sea to heliopolis is about the same in length as that which leads from the altar of the twelve gods at athens to pisa and the temple of olympian zeus: reckoning up you would find the difference very small by which these roads fail of being equal in length, not more indeed than fifteen furlongs; for the road from athens to pisa wants fifteen furlongs of being fifteen hundred, while the road to heliopolis from the sea reaches that number completely. from heliopolis however, as you go up, egypt is narrow; for on the one side a mountain-range belonging to arabia stretches along by the side of it, going in a direction from the north towards the midday and the south wind, tending upwards without a break to that which is called the erythraian sea, in which range are the stone-quarries which were used in cutting stone for the pyramids at memphis. on this side then the mountain ends where i have said, and then takes a turn back; and where it is widest, as i was informed, it is a journey of two months across from east to west; and the borders of it which turn towards the east are said to produce frankincense. such then is the nature of this mountain-range; and on the side of egypt towards libya another range extends, rocky and enveloped in sand: in this are the pyramids, and it runs in the same direction as those parts of the arabian mountains which go towards the midday. so then, i say, from heliopolis the land has no longer a great extent so far as it belongs to egypt, and for about four days' sail up the river egypt properly so called is narrow: and the space between the mountain-ranges which have been mentioned is plain-land, but where it is narrowest it did not seem to me to exceed two hundred furlongs from the arabian mountains to those which are called the libyan. after this again egypt is broad. such is the nature of this land: and from heliopolis to thebes is a voyage up the river of nine days, and the distance of the journey in furlongs is four thousand eight hundred and sixty, the number of schoines being eighty-one. if these measures of egypt in furlongs be put together, the result is as follows:—i have already before this shown that the distance along the sea amounts to three thousand six hundred furlongs, and i will now declare what the distance is inland from the sea to thebes, namely six thousand one hundred and twenty furlongs: and again the distance from thebes to the city called elephantine is one thousand eight hundred furlongs.

of this land then, concerning which i have spoken, it seemed to myself also, according as the priests said, that the greater part had been won as an addition by the egyptians; for it was evident to me that the space between the aforesaid mountain-ranges, which lie above the city of memphis, once was a gulf of the sea, like the regions about ilion and teuthrania and ephesos and the plain of the maiander, if it be permitted to compare small things with great; and small these are in comparison, for of the rivers which heaped up the soil in those regions none is worthy to be compared in volume with a single one of the mouths of the nile, which has five mouths. moreover there are other rivers also, not in size at all equal to the nile, which have performed great feats; of which i can mention the names of several, and especially the acheloos, which flowing through acarnania and so issuing out into the sea has already made half of the echinades from islands into mainland. now there is in the land of arabia, not far from egypt, a gulf of the sea running in from that which is called the erythraian sea, very long and narrow, as i am about to tell. with respect to the length of the voyage along it, one who set out from the innermost point to sail out through it into the open sea, would spend forty days upon the voyage, using oars; and with respect to breadth, where the gulf is broadest it is half a day's sail across: and there is in it an ebb and flow of tide every day. just such another gulf i suppose that egypt was, and that the one ran in towards ethiopia from the northern sea, and the other, the arabian, of which i am about to speak, tended from the south towards syria, the gulfs boring in so as almost to meet at their extreme points, and passing by one another with but a small space left between. if then the stream of the nile should turn aside into this arabian gulf, what would hinder that gulf from being filled up with silt as the river continued to flow, at all events within a period of twenty thousand years? indeed for my part i am of the opinion that it would be filled up even within ten thousand years. how, then, in all the time that has elapsed before i came into being should not a gulf be filled up even of much greater size than this by a river so great and so active? as regards egypt then, i both believe those who say that things are so, and for myself also i am strongly of opinion that they are so; because i have observed that egypt runs out into the sea further than the adjoining land, and that shells are found upon the mountains of it, and an efflorescence of salt forms upon the surface, so that even the pyramids are being eaten away by it, and moreover that of all the mountains of egypt, the range which lies above memphis is the only one which has sand: besides which i notice that egypt resembles neither the land of arabia, which borders upon it, nor libya, nor yet syria (for they are syrians who dwell in the parts of arabia lying along the sea), but that it has soil which is black and easily breaks up, seeing that it is in truth mud and silt brought down from ethiopia by the river: but the soil of libya, we know, is reddish in colour and rather sandy, while that of arabia and syria is somewhat clayey and rocky. the priests also gave me a strong proof concerning this land as follows, namely that in the reign of king moiris, whenever the river reached a height of at least eight cubits it watered egypt below memphis; and not yet nine hundred years had gone by since the death of moiris, when i heard these things from the priests: now however, unless the river rises to sixteen cubits, or fifteen at the least, it does not go over the land. i think too that those egyptians who dwell below the lake of moiris and especially in that region which is called the delta, if that land continues to grow in height according to this proportion and to increase similarly in extent, will suffer for all remaining time, from the nile not overflowing their land, that same thing which they themselves said that the hellenes would at some time suffer: for hearing that the whole land of the hellenes has rain and is not watered by rivers as theirs is, they said that the hellenes would at some time be disappointed of a great hope and would suffer the ills of famine. this saying means that if the god shall not send them rain, but shall allow drought to prevail for a long time, the hellenes will be destroyed by hunger; for they have in fact no other supply of water to save them except from zeus alone. this has been rightly said by the egyptians with reference to the hellenes: but now let me tell how matters are with the egyptians themselves in their turn. if, in accordance with what i before said, their land below memphis (for this is that which is increasing) shall continue to increase in height according to the same proportion as in the past time, assuredly those egyptians who dwell here will suffer famine, if their land shall not have rain nor the river be able to go over their fields. it is certain however that now they gather in fruit from the earth with less labour than any other men and also with less than the other egyptians; for they have no labour in breaking up furrows with a plough nor in hoeing nor in any other of those labours which other men have about a crop; but when the river has come up of itself and watered their fields and after watering has left them again, then each man sows his own field and turns into it swine, and when he has trodden the seed into the ground by means of the swine, after that he waits for the harvest, and when he has threshed the corn by means of the swine, then he gathers it in.

if we desire to follow the opinions of the ionians as regards egypt, who say that the delta alone is egypt, reckoning its sea-coast to be from the watch-tower called of perseus to the fish-curing houses of pelusion, a distance of forty schoines, and counting it to extend inland as far as the city of kercasoros, where the nile divides and runs to pelusion and canobos, while as for the rest of egypt, they assign it partly to libya and partly to arabia,—if, i say, we should follow this account, we should thereby declare that in former times the egyptians had no land to live in; for, as we have seen, their delta at any rate is alluvial, and has appeared (so to speak) lately, as the egyptians themselves say and as my opinion is. if then at the first there was no land for them to live in, why did they waste their labour to prove that they had come into being before all other men? they needed not to have made trial of the children to see what language they would first utter. however i am not of the opinion that the egyptians came into being at the same time as that which is called by the ionians the delta, but that they existed always ever since the human race came into being, and that as their land advanced forwards, many of them were left in their first abodes and many came down gradually to the lower parts. at least it is certain that in old times thebes had the name of egypt, and of this the circumference measures six thousand one hundred and twenty furlongs.

if then we judge aright of these matters, the opinion of the ionians about egypt is not sound: but if the judgment of the ionians is right, i declare that neither the hellenes nor the ionians themselves know how to reckon since they say that the whole earth is made up of three divisions, europe, asia, and libya: for they ought to count in addition to these the delta of egypt, since it belongs neither to asia nor to libya; for at least it cannot be the river nile by this reckoning which divides asia from libya, but the nile is cleft at the point of this delta so as to flow round it, and the result is that this land would come between asia and libya.

we dismiss then our opinion of the ionians, and express a judgment of our own on this matter also, that egypt is all that land which is inhabited by egyptians, just as kilikia is that which is inhabited by kilikians and assyria that which is inhabited by assyrians, and we know of no boundary properly speaking between asia and libya except the borders of egypt. if however we shall adopt the opinion which is commonly held by the hellenes, we shall suppose that the whole of egypt, beginning from the cataract and the city of elephantine, is divided into two parts and that it thus partakes of both the names, since one side will thus belong to libya and the other to asia; for the nile from the cataract onwards flows to the sea cutting egypt through in the midst; and as far as the city of kercasoros the nile flows in one single stream, but from this city onwards it is parted into three ways; and one, which is called the pelusian mouth, turns towards the east; the second of the ways goes towards the west, and this is called the canobic mouth; but that one of the ways which is straight runs thus,—when the river in its course downwards comes to the point of the delta, then it cuts the delta through the midst and so issues out to the sea. in this we have a portion of the water of the river which is not the smallest nor the least famous, and it is called the sebennytic mouth. there are also two other mouths which part off from the sebennytic and go to the sea, and these are called, one the saitic, the other the mendesian mouth. the bolbitinitic, and bucolic mouths, on the other hand, are not natural but made by digging. moreover also the answer given by the oracle of ammon bears witness in support of my opinion that egypt is of the extent which i declare it to be in my account; and of this answer i heard after i had formed my own opinion about egypt. for those of the city of marea and of apis, dwelling in the parts of egypt which border on libya, being of opinion themselves that they were libyans and not egyptians, and also being burdened by the rules of religious service, because they desired not to be debarred from the use of cows' flesh, sent to ammon saying that they had nought in common with the egyptians, for they dwelt outside the delta and agreed with them in nothing; and they said they desired that it might be lawful for them to eat everything without distinction. the god however did not permit them to do so, but said that that land was egypt where the nile came over and watered, and that those were egyptians who dwelling below the city of elephantine drank of that river. thus was it answered to them by the oracle about this: and the nile, when it is in flood, goes over not only the delta but also of the land which is called libyan and of that which is called arabian sometimes as much as two days' journey on each side, and at times even more than this or at times less.

as regards the nature of the river, neither from the priests nor yet from any other man was i able to obtain any knowledge: and i was desirous especially to learn from them about these matters, namely why the nile comes down increasing in volume from the summer solstice onwards for a hundred days, and then, when it has reached the number of these days, turns and goes back, failing in its stream, so that through the whole winter season it continues to be low, and until the summer solstice returns. of none of these things was i able to receive any account from the egyptians, when i inquired of them what power the nile has whereby it is of a nature opposite to that of all other rivers. and i made inquiry, desiring to know both this which i say and also why, unlike all other rivers, it does not give rise to any breezes blowing from it. however some of the hellenes who desired to gain distinction for cleverness have given an account of this water in three different ways: two of these i do not think it worth while even to speak of except only to indicate their nature; of which the one says that the etesian winds are the cause that makes the river rise, by preventing the nile from flowing out into the sea. but often the etesian winds fail and yet the nile does the same work as it is wont to do; and moreover, if these were the cause, all the other rivers also which flow in a direction opposed to the etesian winds ought to have been affected in the same way as the nile, and even more, in as much as they are smaller and present to them a feebler flow of streams: but there are many of these rivers in syria and many also in libya, and they are affected in no such manner as the nile. the second way shows more ignorance than that which has been mentioned, and it is more marvellous to tell; for it says that the river produces these effects because it flows from the ocean, and that the ocean flows round the whole earth. the third of the ways is much the most specious, but nevertheless it is the most mistaken of all: for indeed this way has no more truth in it than the rest, alleging as it does that the nile flows from melting snow; whereas it flows out of libya through the midst of the ethiopians, and so comes out into egypt. how then should it flow from snow, when it flows from the hottest parts to those which are cooler? and indeed most of the facts are such as to convince a man (one at least who is capable of reasoning about such matters), that it is not at all likely that it flows from snow. the first and greatest evidence is afforded by the winds, which blow hot from these regions; the second is that the land is rainless always and without frost, whereas after snow has fallen rain must necessarily come within five days, so that if it snowed in those parts rain would fall there; the third evidence is afforded by the people dwelling there, who are of a black colour by reason of the burning heat. moreover kites and swallows remain there through the year and do not leave the land; and cranes flying from the cold weather which comes on in the region of scythia come regularly to these parts for wintering: if then it snowed ever so little in that land through which the nile flows and in which it has its rise, none of these things would take place, as necessity compels us to admit. as for him who talked about the ocean, he carried his tale into the region of the unknown, and so he need not be refuted; since i for my part know of no river ocean existing, but i think that homer or one of the poets who were before him invented the name and introduced it into his verse.

if however after i have found fault with the opinions proposed, i am bound to declare an opinion of my own about the matters which are in doubt, i will tell what to my mind is the reason why the nile increases in the summer. in the winter season the sun, being driven away from his former path through the heaven by the stormy winds, comes to the upper parts of libya. if one would set forth the matter in the shortest way, all has now been said; for whatever region this god approaches most and stands directly above, this it may reasonably be supposed is most in want of water, and its native streams of rivers are dried up most. however, to set it forth at greater length, thus it is:—the sun passing in his course by the upper parts of libya, does thus, that is to say, since at all times the air in those parts is clear and the country is warm, because there are no cold winds, in passing through it the sun does just as he was wont to do in the summer, when going through the midst of the heaven, that is he draws to himself the water, and having drawn it he drives it away to the upper parts of the country, and the winds take it up and scattering it abroad melt it into rain; so it is natural that the winds which blow from this region, namely the south and south-west winds, should be much the most rainy of all the winds. i think however that the sun does not send away from himself all the water of the nile of each year, but that also he lets some remain behind with himself. then when the winter becomes milder, the sun returns back again to the midst of the heaven, and from that time onwards he draws equally from all rivers; but in the meantime they flow in large volume, since water of rain mingles with them in great quantity, because their country receives rain then and is filled with torrent streams. in summer however they are weak, since not only the showers of rain fail them, but also they are drawn by the sun. the nile however, alone of all rivers, not having rain and being drawn by the sun, naturally flows during this time of winter in much less than its proper volume, that is much less than in summer; for then it is drawn equally with all the other waters, but in winter it bears the burden alone. thus i suppose the sun to be the cause of these things. he also is the cause in my opinion that the air in these parts is dry, since he makes it so by scorching up his path through the heaven: thus summer prevails always in the upper parts of libya. if however the station of the seasons had been changed, and where now in the heaven are placed the north wind and winter, there was the station of the south wind and of the midday, and where now is placed the south wind, there was the north, if this had been so, the sun being driven from the midst of the heaven by the winter and the north wind would go to the upper parts of europe, just as now he comes to the upper parts of libya, and passing in his course throughout the whole of europe i suppose he would do to the ister that which he now works upon the nile. as to the breeze, why none blows from the river, my opinion is that from very hot places it is not natural that anything should blow, and that a breeze is wont to blow from something cold.

let these matters then be as they are and as they were at the first: but as to the sources of the nile, not one either of the egyptians or of the libyans or of the hellenes, who came to speech with me, professed to know anything, except the scribe of the sacred treasury of athene at the city of sais in egypt. to me however this man seemed not to be speaking seriously when he said that he had certain knowledge of it; and he said as follows, namely that there were two mountains of which the tops ran up to a sharp point, situated between the city of syene, which is in the district of thebes, and elephantine, and the names of the mountains were, of the one crophi and of the other mophi. from the middle between these mountains flowed (he said) the sources of the nile, which were fathomless in depth, and half of the water flowed to egypt and towards the north wind, the other half to ethiopia and the south wind. as for the fathomless depth of the source, he said that psammetichos king of egypt came to a trial of this matter; for he had a rope twisted of many thousand fathoms and let it down in this place, and it found no bottom. by this the scribe (if this which he told was really as he said) gave me to understand that there were certain strong eddies there and a backward flow, and that since the water dashed against the mountains, therefore the sounding-line could not come to any bottom when it was let down. from no other person was i able to learn anything about this matter; but for the rest i learnt so much as here follows by the most diligent inquiry; for i went myself as an eye-witness as far as the city of elephantine and from that point onwards i gathered knowledge by report. from the city of elephantine as one goes up the river there is country which slopes steeply; so that here one must attach ropes to the vessel on both sides, as one fastens an ox, and so make one's way onward; and if the rope break, the vessel is gone at once, carried away by the violence of the stream. through this country it is a voyage of about four days in length, and in this part the nile is winding like the river maiander, and the distance amounts to twelve schoines, which one must traverse in this manner. then you will come to a level plain, in which the nile flows round an island named tachompso. (now in the regions above the elephantine there dwell ethiopians at once succeeding, who also occupy half of the island, and egyptians the other half.) adjoining this island there is a great lake, round which dwell ethiopian nomad tribes; and when you have sailed through this you will come to the stream of the nile again, which flows into this lake. after this you will disembark and make a journey by land of forty days; for in the nile sharp rocks stand forth out of the water, and there are many reefs, by which it is not possible for a vessel to pass. then after having passed through this country in the forty days which i have said, you will embark again in another vessel and sail for twelve days; and after this you will come to a great city called meroe. this city is said to be the mother-city of all the other ethiopians: and they who dwell in it reverence of the gods zeus and dionysos alone, and these they greatly honour; and they have an oracle of zeus established, and make warlike marches whensoever the god commands them by prophesyings and to whatsoever place he commands. sailing from this city you will come to the "deserters" in another period of time equal to that in which you came from elephantine to the mother-city of the ethiopians. now the name of these "deserters" is asmach, and this word signifies, when translated into the tongue of the hellenes, "those who stand on the left hand of the king." these were two hundred and forty thousand egyptians of the warrior class, who revolted and went over to these ethiopians for the following cause:—in the reign of psammetichos garrisons were set, one towards the ethiopians at the city of elephantine, another towards the arabians and assyrians at daphnai of pelusion, and another towards libya at marea: and even in my own time the garrisons of the persians too are ordered in the same manner as these were in the reign of psammetichos, for both at elephantine and at daphnai the persians have outposts. the egyptians then of whom i speak had served as outposts for three years and no one relieved them from their guard; accordingly they took counsel together, and adopting a common plan they all in a body revolted from psammetichos and set out for ethiopia. hearing this psammetichos set forth in pursuit, and when he came up with them he entreated them much and endeavoured to persuade them not to desert the gods of their country and their children and wives: upon which it is said that one of them pointed to his privy member and said that wherever this was, there would they have both children and wives. when these came to ethiopia they gave themselves over to the king of the ethiopians; and he rewarded them as follows:—there were certain of the ethiopians who had come to be at variance with him; and he bade them drive these out and dwell in their land. so since these men settled in the land of the ethiopians, the ethiopians have come to be of milder manners, from having learnt the customs of the egyptians.

the nile then, besides the part of its course which is in egypt, is known as far as a four months' journey by river and land: for that is the number of months which are found by reckoning to be spent in going from elephantine to these "deserters": and the river runs from the west and the setting of the sun. but what comes after that point no one can clearly say; for this land is desert by reason of the burning heat. this much however i heard from men of kyrene, who told me that they had been to the oracle of ammon, and had come to speech with etearchos king of the ammonians: and it happened that after speaking of other matters they fell to discourse about the nile and how no one knew the sources of it; and etearchos said that once there came to him men of the nasamonians (this is a libyan race which dwells in the syrtis, and also in the land to the east of the syrtis reaching to no great distance), and when the nasamonians came and were asked by him whether they were able to tell him anything more than he knew about the desert parts of libya, they said that there had been among them certain sons of chief men, who were of unruly disposition; and these when they grew up to be men had devised various other extravagant things and also they had told off by lot five of themselves to go to see the desert parts of libya and to try whether they could discover more than those who had previously explored furthest: for in those parts of libya which are by the northern sea, beginning from egypt and going as far as the headland of soloeis, which is the extreme point of libya, libyans (and of them many races) extend along the whole coast, except so much as the hellenes and phenicians hold; but in the upper parts, which lie above the sea-coast and above those people whose land comes down to the sea, libya is full of wild beasts; and in the parts above the land of wild beasts it is full of sand, terribly waterless and utterly desert. these young men then (said they), being sent out by their companions well furnished with supplies of water and provisions, went first through the inhabited country, and after they had passed through this they came to the country of wild beasts, and after this they passed through the desert, making their journey towards the west wind; and having passed through a great tract of sand in many days, they saw at last trees growing in a level place; and having come up to them, they were beginning to pluck the fruit which was upon the trees: but as they began to pluck it, there came upon them small men, of less stature than men of the common size, and these seized them and carried them away; and neither could the nasamonians understand anything of their speech nor could those who were carrying them off understand anything of the speech of the nasamonians; and they led them (so it was said) through very great swamps, and after passing through these they came to a city in which all the men were in size like those who carried them off and in colour of skin black; and by the city ran a great river, which ran from the west towards the sunrising, and in it were seen crocodiles. of the account given by etearchos the ammonian let so much suffice as is here said, except that, as the men of kyrene told me, he alleged that the nasamonians returned safe home, and that the people to whom they had come were all wizards. now this river which ran by the city, etearchos conjectured to be the nile, and moreover reason compels us to think so; for the nile flows from libya and cuts libya through in the midst, and as i conjecture, judging of what is not known by that which is evident to the view, it starts at a distance from its mouth equal to that of the ister: for the river ister begins from the keltoi and the city of pyrene and so runs that it divides europe in the midst (now the keltoi are outside the pillars of heracles and border upon the kynesians, who dwell furthest towards the sunset of all those who have their dwelling in europe): and the ister ends, having its course through the whole of europe, by flowing into the euxine sea at the place where the milesians have their settlement of istria. now the ister, since it flows through land which is inhabited, is known by the reports of many; but of the sources of the nile no one can give an account, for the part of libya through which it flows is uninhabited and desert. about its course however so much as it was possible to learn by the most diligent inquiry has been told; and it runs out into egypt. now egypt lies nearly opposite to the mountain districts of kilikia; and from thence to sinope, which lies upon the euxine sea, is a journey in the same straight line of five days for a man without encumbrance; and sinope lies opposite to the place where the ister runs out into the sea: thus i think that the nile passes through the whole of libya and is of equal measure with the ister.

of the nile then let so much suffice as has been said. of egypt however i shall make my report at length, because it has wonders more in number than any other land, and works too it has to show as much as any land, which are beyond expression great: for this reason then more shall be said concerning it.

the egyptians in agreement with their climate, which is unlike any other, and with the river, which shows a nature different from all other rivers, established for themselves manners and customs in a way opposite to other men in almost all matters: for among them the women frequent the market and carry on trade, while the men remain at home and weave; and whereas others weave pushing the woof upwards, the egyptians push it downwards: the men carry their burdens upon their heads and the women upon their shoulders: the women make water standing up and the men crouching down: they ease themselves in their houses and they eat without in the streets, alleging as reason for this that it is right to do secretly the things that are unseemly though necessary, but those which are not unseemly, in public: no woman is a minister either of male or female divinity, but men of all, both male and female: to support their parents the sons are in no way compelled, if they do not desire to do so, but the daughters are forced to do so, be they never so unwilling. the priests of the gods in other lands wear long hair, but in egypt they shave their heads: among other men the custom is that in mourning those whom the matter concerns most nearly have their hair cut short, but the egyptians, when deaths occur, let their hair grow long, both that on the head and that on the chin, having before been close shaven: other men have their daily living separated from beasts, but the egyptians have theirs together with beasts: other men live on wheat and on barley, but to any one of the egyptians who makes his living on these it is a great reproach; they make their bread of maize, which some call spelt: they knead dough with their feet and clay with their hands, with which also they gather up dung: and whereas other men, except such as have learnt otherwise from the egyptians, have their members as nature made them, the egyptians practice circumcision: as to garments, the men wear two each and the women but one: and whereas others make fast the rings and ropes of the sails outside the ship, the egyptians do this inside: finally in the writing of characters and reckoning with pebbles, while the hellenes carry the hand from the left to the right, the egyptians do this from the right to the left; and doing so they say that they do it themselves rightwise and the hellenes leftwise: and they use two kinds of characters for writing, of which the one kind is called sacred and the other common.

they are religious excessively beyond all other men, and with regard to this they have customs as follows:—they drink from cups of bronze and rinse them out every day, and not some only do this but all: they wear garments of linen always newly washed, and this they make a special point of practice: they circumcise themselves for the sake of cleanliness, preferring to be clean rather than comely. the priests shave themselves all over their body every other day, so that no lice or any other foul thing may come to be upon them when they minister to the gods; and the priests wear garments of linen only and sandals of papyrus, and any other garment they may not take nor other sandals; these wash themselves in cold water twice in a day and twice again in the night; and other religious services they perform (one may almost say) of infinite number. they enjoy also good things not a few, for they do not consume or spend anything of their own substance, but there is sacred bread baked for them and they have each great quantity of flesh of oxen and geese coming in to them each day, and also wine of grapes is given to them; but it is not permitted to them to taste of fish: beans moreover the egyptians do not at all sow in their land, and those which they grow they neither eat raw nor boil for food; nay the priests do not endure even to look upon them, thinking this to be an unclean kind of pulse: and there is not one priest only for each of the gods but many, and of them one is chief-priest, and whenever a priest dies his son is appointed to his place.

the males of the ox kind they consider to belong to epaphos, and on account of him they test them in the following manner:—if the priest sees one single black hair upon the beast he counts it not clean for sacrifice; and one of the priests who is appointed for the purpose makes investigation of these matters, both when the beast is standing upright and when it is lying on its back, drawing out its tongue moreover, to see if it is clean in respect of the appointed signs, which i shall tell of in another part of the history: he looks also at the hairs of the tail to see if it has them growing in a natural manner; and if it be clean in respect of all these things, he marks it with a piece of papyrus, rolling this round the horns, and then when he has plastered sealing-earth over it he sets upon it the seal of his signet-ring, and after that they take the animal away. but for one who sacrifices a beast not sealed the penalty appointed is death. in this way then the beast is tested; and their appointed manner of sacrifice is as follows:—they lead the sealed beast to the altar where they happen to be sacrificing, and then kindle a fire: after that, having poured libations of wine over the altar so that it runs down upon the victim and having called upon the god, they cut its throat, and having cut its throat they sever the head from the body. the body then of the beast they flay, but upon the head they make many imprecations first, and then they who have a market and hellenes sojourning among them for trade, these carry it to the market-place and sell it, while they who have no hellenes among them cast it away into the river: and this is the form of imprecations which they utter upon the heads, praying that if any evil be about to befall either themselves who are offering sacrifice or the land of egypt in general, it may come rather upon this head. now as regards the heads of the beasts which are sacrificed and the pouring over them of the wine, all the egyptians have the same customs equally for all their sacrifices; and by reason of this custom none of the egyptians eat of the head either of this or of any other kind of animal: but the manner of disembowelling the victims and of burning them is appointed among them differently for different sacrifices; i shall speak however of the sacrifices to that goddess whom they regard as the greatest of all, and to whom they celebrate the greatest feast.—when they have flayed the bullock and made imprecation, they take out the whole of its lower entrails but leave in the body the upper entrails and the fat; and they sever from it the legs and the end of the loin and the shoulders and the neck: and this done, they fill the rest of the body of the animal with consecrated loaves and honey and raisins and figs and frankincense and myrrh and every other kind of spices, and having filled it with these they offer it, pouring over it great abundance of oil. they make their sacrifice after fasting, and while the offerings are being burnt, they all beat themselves for mourning, and when they have finished beating themselves they set forth as a feast that which they left unburnt of the sacrifice. the clean males then of the ox kind, both full-grown animals and calves, are sacrificed by all the egyptians; the females however they may not sacrifice, but these are sacred to isis; for the figure of isis is in the form of a woman with cow's horns, just as the hellenes present io in pictures, and all the egyptians without distinction reverence cows far more than any other kind of cattle; for which reason neither man nor woman of the egyptian race would kiss a man who is a hellene on the mouth, nor will they use a knife or roasting-spits or a caldron belonging to a hellene, nor taste the flesh even of a clean animal if it has been cut with the knife of a hellene. and the cattle of this kind which die they bury in the following manner:—the females they cast into the river, but the males they bury, each people in the suburb of their town, with one of the horns, or sometimes both, protruding to mark the place; and when the bodies have rotted away and the appointed time comes on, then to each city comes a boat from that which is called the island of prosopitis (this is in the delta, and the extent of its circuit is nine schoines). in this island of prosopitis is situated, besides many other cities, that one from which the boats come to take up the bones of the oxen, and the name of the city is atarbechis, and in it there is set up a holy temple of aphrodite. from this city many go abroad in various directions, some to one city and others to another, and when they have dug up the bones of the oxen they carry them off, and coming together they bury them in one single place. in the same manner as they bury the oxen they bury also their other cattle when they die; for about them also they have the same law laid down, and these also they abstain from killing.

now all who have a temple set up to the theban zeus or who are of the district of thebes, these, i say, all sacrifice goats and abstain from sheep: for not all the egyptians equally reverence the same gods, except only isis and osiris (who they say is dionysos), these they all reverence alike: but they who have a temple of mendes or belong to the mendesian district, these abstain from goats and sacrifice sheep. now the men of thebes and those who after their example abstain from sheep, say that this custom was established among them for the cause which follows:—heracles (they say) had an earnest desire to see zeus, and zeus did not desire to be seen of him; and at last when heracles was urgent in entreaty zeus contrived this device, that is to say, he flayed a ram and held in front of him the head of the ram which he had cut off, and he put on over him the fleece and then showed himself to him. hence the egyptians make the image of zeus with the face of a ram; and the ammonians do so also after their example, being settlers both from the egyptians and from the ethiopians, and using a language which is a medley of both tongues: and in my opinion it is from this god that the egyptians call zeus amun. the thebans then do not sacrifice rams but hold them sacred for this reason; on one day however in the year, on the feast of zeus, they cut up in the same manner and flay one single ram and cover with its skin the image of zeus, and then they bring up to it another image of heracles. this done, all who are in the temple beat themselves in lamentation for the ram, and then they bury it in a sacred tomb.

about heracles i heard the account given that he was of the number of the twelve gods; but of the other heracles whom the hellenes know i was not able to hear in any part of egypt: and moreover to prove that the egyptians did not take the name of heracles from the hellenes, but rather the hellenes from the egyptians,—that is to say those of the hellenes who gave the name heracles to the son of amphitryon,—of that, i say, besides many other evidences there is chiefly this, namely that the parents of this heracles, amphitryon and alcmene, were both of egypt by descent, and also that the egyptians say that they do not know the names either of poseidon or of the dioscuroi, nor have these been accepted by them as gods among the other gods; whereas if they had received from the hellenes the name of any divinity, they would naturally have preserved the memory of these most of all, assuming that in those times as now some of the hellenes were wont to make voyages and were seafaring folk, as i suppose and as my judgment compels me to think; so that the egyptians would have learnt the names of these gods even more than that of heracles. in fact however heracles is a very ancient egyptian god; and (as they say themselves) it is seventeen thousand years to the beginning of the reign of amasis from the time when the twelve gods, of whom they count that heracles is one, were begotten of the eight gods. i moreover, desiring to know something certain of these matters so far as might be, made a voyage also to tyre of phenicia, hearing that in that place there was a holy temple of heracles; and i saw that it was richly furnished with many votive offerings besides, and especially there were in it two pillars, the one of pure gold and the other of an emerald stone of such size as to shine by night: and having come to speech with the priests of the god, i asked them how long a time it was since their temple had been set up: and these also i found to be at variance with the hellenes, for they said that at the same time when tyre was founded, the temple of the god also had been set up, and that it was a period of two thousand three hundred years since their people began to dwell at tyre. i saw also at tyre another temple of heracles, with the surname thasian; and i came to thasos also and there i found a temple of heracles set up by the phenicians, who had sailed out to seek for europa and had colonised thasos; and these things happened full five generations of men before heracles the son of amphitryon was born in hellas. so then my inquiries show clearly that heracles is an ancient god, and those of the hellenes seem to me to act most rightly who have two temples of heracles set up, and who sacrifice to the one as an immortal god and with the title olympian, and make offerings of the dead to the other as a hero. moreover, besides many other stories which the hellenes tell without due consideration, this tale is especially foolish which they tell about heracles, namely that when he came to egypt, the egyptians put on him wreaths and led him forth in procession to sacrifice him to zeus; and he for some time kept quiet, but when they were beginning the sacrifice of him at the altar, he betook himself to prowess and slew them all. i for my part am of opinion that the hellenes when they tell this tale are altogether without knowledge of the nature and customs of the egyptians; for how should they for whom it is not lawful to sacrifice even beasts, except swine and the males of oxen and calves (such of them as are clean) and geese, how should these sacrifice human beings? besides this, how is it in nature possible that heracles, being one person only and moreover a man (as they assert), should slay many myriads? having said so much of these matters, we pray that we may have grace from both the gods and the heroes for our speech.

now the reason why those of the egyptians whom i have mentioned do not sacrifice goats, female or male, is this:—the mendesians count pan to be one of the eight gods (now these eight gods they say came into being before the twelve gods), and the painters and image-makers represent in painting and in sculpture the figure of pan, just as the hellenes do, with goat's face and legs, not supposing him to be really like this but to resemble the other gods; the cause however why they represent him in this form i prefer not to say. the mendesians then reverence all goats and the males more than the females (and the goatherds too have greater honour than other herdsmen), but of the goats one especially is reverenced, and when he dies there is great mourning in all the mendesian district: and both the goat and pan are called in the egyptian tongue mendes. moreover in my lifetime there happened in that district this marvel, that is to say a he-goat had intercourse with a woman publicly, and this was so done that all men might have evidence of it.

the pig is accounted by the egyptians an abominable animal; and first, if any of them in passing by touch a pig, he goes into the river and dips himself forthwith in the water together with his garments; and then too swineherds, though they may be native egyptians, unlike all others, do not enter any of the temples in egypt, nor is anyone willing to give his daughter in marriage to one of them or to take a wife from among them; but the swineherds both give in marriage to one another and take from one another. now to the other gods the egyptians do not think it right to sacrifice swine; but to the moon and to dionysos alone at the same time and on the same full-moon they sacrifice swine, and then eat their flesh: and as to the reason why, when they abominate swine at all their other feasts, they sacrifice them at this, there is a story told by the egyptians; and this story i know, but it is not a seemly one for me to tell. now the sacrifice of the swine to the moon is performed as follows:—when the priest has slain the victim, he puts together the end of the tail and the spleen and the caul, and covers them up with the whole of the fat of the animal which is about the paunch, and then he offers them with fire; and the rest of the flesh they eat on that day of full moon upon which they have held sacrifice, but on any day after this they will not taste of it: the poor however among them by reason of the scantiness of their means shape pigs of dough and having baked them they offer these as a sacrifice. then for dionysos on the eve of the festival each one kills a pig by cutting its throat before his own doors, and after that he gives the pig to the swineherd who sold it to him, to carry away again; and the rest of the feast of dionysos is celebrated by the egyptians in the same way as by the hellenes in almost all things except choral dances, but instead of the phallos they have invented another contrivance, namely figures of about a cubit in height worked by strings, which women carry about the villages, with the privy member made to move and not much less in size than the rest of the body: and a flute goes before and they follow singing the praises of dionysos. as to the reason why the figure has this member larger than is natural and moves it, though it moves no other part of the body, about this there is a sacred story told. now i think that melampus the son of amytheon was not without knowledge of these rites of sacrifice, but was acquainted with them: for melampus is he who first set forth to the hellenes the name of dionysos and the manner of sacrifice and the procession of the phallos. strictly speaking indeed, he when he made it known did not take in the whole, but those wise men who came after him made it known more at large. melampus then is he who taught of the phallos which is carried in procession for dionysos, and from him the hellenes learnt to do that which they do. i say then that melampus being a man of ability contrived for himself an art of divination, and having learnt from egypt he taught the hellenes many things, and among them those that concern dionysos, making changes in some few points of them: for i shall not say that that which is done in worship of the god in egypt came accidentally to be the same with that which is done among the hellenes, for then these rites would have been in character with the hellenic worship and not lately brought in; nor certainly shall i say that the egyptians took from the hellenes either this or any other customary observance: matters concerning dionysos from cadmos the tyrian and from those who came with him from phenicia to the land which we now call boeotia.

moreover the naming of almost all the gods has come to hellas from egypt: for that it has come from the barbarians i find by inquiry is true, and i am of opinion that most probably it has come from egypt, because, except in the case of poseidon and the dioscuroi (in accordance with that which i have said before), and also of hera and hestia and themis and the charites and nereids, the egyptians say themselves: but as for the gods whose names they profess that they do not know, these i think received their naming from the pelasgians, except poiseidon; but about this god the hellenes learnt from the libyans, for no people except the libyans have had the name of poseidon from the first and have paid honour to this god always. nor, it may be added, have the egyptians any custom of worshipping heroes. these observances then, and others besides these which i shall mention, the hellenes have adopted from the egyptians; but to make, as they do the images of hermes with the phallos they have learnt not from the egyptians but from the pelasgians, the custom having been received by the athenians first of all the hellenes and from these by the rest; for just at the time when the athenians were beginning to rank among the hellenes, the pelasgians became dwellers with them in their land, and from this very cause it was that they began to be counted as hellenes. whosoever has been initiated in the mysteries of the cabeiroi, which the samothrakians perform having received them from the pelasgians, that man knows the meaning of my speech; for these very pelasgians who became dwellers with the athenians used to dwell before that time in samothrake, and from them the samothrakians received their mysteries. so then the athenians were the first of the hellenes who made the images of hermes with the phallos, having learnt from the pelasgians; and the pelasgians told a sacred story about it, which is set forth in the mysteries in samothrake. now the pelasgians formerly were wont to make all their sacrifices calling upon the gods in prayer, as i know from that which i heard at dodona, but they gave no title or name to any of them, for they had not yet heard any, but they called them gods from some such notion as this, that they had set in order all things and so had the distribution of everything. afterwards when much time had elapsed, they learnt from egypt the names of the gods, all except dionysos, for his name they learnt long afterwards; and after a time the pelasgians consulted the oracle at dodona about the names, for this prophetic seat is accounted to be the most ancient of the oracles which are among the hellenes, and at that time it was the only one. so when the pelasgians asked the oracle at dodona whether they should adopt the names which had come from the barbarians, the oracle in reply bade them make use of the names. from this time they sacrificed using the names of the gods, and from the pelasgians the hellenes afterwards received them: but when the several gods had their birth, or whether they all were from the beginning, and of what form they are, they did not learn till yesterday, as it were, or the day before: for hesiod and homer i suppose were four hundred years before my time and not more, and these are they who made a theogony for the hellenes and gave the titles to the gods and distributed to them honours and arts, and set forth their forms: but the poets who are said to have been before these men were really in my opinion after them. of these things the first are said by the priestesses of dodona, and the latter things, those namely which have regard to hesiod and homer, by myself.

as regards the oracles both that among the hellenes and that in libya, the egyptians tell the following tale. the priests of the theban zeus told me that two women in the service of the temple had been carried away from thebes by phenicians, and that they had heard that one of them had been sold to go into libya and the other to the hellenes; and these women, they said, were they who first founded the prophetic seats among the nations which have been named: and when i inquired whence they knew so perfectly of this tale which they told, they said in reply that a great search had been made by the priests after these women, and that they had not been able to find them, but they had heard afterwards this tale about them which they were telling. this i heard from the priests at thebes, and what follows is said by the prophetesses of dodona. they say that two black doves flew from thebes in egypt, and came one of them to libya and the other to their land. and this latter settled upon an oak-tree and spoke with human voice, saying that it was necessary that a prophetic seat of zeus should be established in that place; and they supposed that that was of the gods which was announced to them, and made one accordingly: and the dove which went away to the libyans, they say, bade the libyans make an oracle of ammon; and this also is of zeus. the priestesses of dodona told me these things, of whom the eldest was named promeneia, the next after her timarete, and the youngest nicandra; and the other people of dodona who were engaged about the temple gave accounts agreeing with theirs. i however have an opinion about the matter as follows:—if the phenicians did in truth carry away the consecrated women and sold one of them into libya and the other into hellas, i suppose that in the country now called hellas, which was formerly called pelasgia, this woman was sold into the land of the thesprotians; and then being a slave there she set up a sanctuary of zeus under a real oak-tree; as indeed it was natural that being an attendant of the sanctuary of zeus at thebes, she should there, in the place to which she had come, have a memory of him; and after this, when she got understanding of the hellenic tongue, she established an oracle, and she reported, i suppose, that her sister had been sold in libya by the same phenicians by whom she herself had been sold. moreover, i think that the women were called doves by the people of dodona for the reason that they were barbarians and because it seemed to them that they uttered voice like birds; but after a time (they say) the dove spoke with human voice, that is when the woman began to speak so that they could understand; but so long as she spoke a barbarian tongue she seemed to them to be uttering voice like a bird: for if it had been really a dove, how could it speak with human voice? and in saying that the dove was black, they indicate that the woman was egyptian. the ways of delivering oracles too at thebes in egypt and at dodona closely resemble each other, as it happens, and also the method of divination by victims has come from egypt.

moreover, it is true also that the egyptians were the first of men who made solemn assemblies and processions and approaches to the temples, and from them the hellenes have learnt them, and my evidence for this is that the egyptian celebrations of these have been held from a very ancient time, whereas the hellenic were introduced but lately. the egyptians hold their solemn assemblies not once in the year but often, especially and with the greatest zeal and devotion at the city of bubastis for artemis, and next at busiris for isis; for in this last-named city there is a very great temple of isis, and this city stands in the middle of the delta of egypt; now isis is in the tongue of the hellenes demeter: thirdly, they have a solemn assembly at the city of sais for athene, fourthly at heliopolis for the sun (helios), fifthly at the city of buto in honour of leto, and sixthly at the city of papremis for ares. now, when they are coming to the city of bubastis they do as follows:—they sail men and women together, and a great multitude of each sex in every boat; and some of the women have rattles and rattle with them, while some of the men play the flute during the whole time of the voyage, and the rest, both women and men, sing and clap their hands; and when as they sail they come opposite to any city on the way they bring the boat to land, and some of the women continue to do as i have said, others cry aloud and jeer at the women in that city, some dance, and some stand up and pull up their garments. this they do by every city along the river-bank; and when they come to bubastis they hold festival celebrating great sacrifices, and more wine of grapes is consumed upon that festival than during the whole of the rest of the year. to this place (so say the natives) they come together year by year even to the number of seventy myriads of men and women, besides children. thus it is done here; and how they celebrate the festival in honour of isis at the city of busiris has been told by me before: for, as i said, they beat themselves in mourning after the sacrifice, all of them both men and women, very many myriads of people; but for whom they beat themselves it is not permitted to me by religion to say: and so many as there are of the carians dwelling in egypt do this even more than the egyptians themselves, inasmuch as they cut their foreheads also with knives; and by this it is manifested that they are strangers and not egyptians. at the times when they gather together at the city of sais for their sacrifices, on a certain night they all kindle lamps many in number in the open air round about the houses; now the lamps are saucers full of salt and oil mixed, and the wick floats by itself on the surface, and this burns during the whole night; and to the festival is given the name lychnocaia (the lighting of lamps). moreover those of the egyptians who have not come to this solemn assembly observe the night of the festival and themselves also light lamps all of them, and thus not in sais alone are they lighted, but over all egypt: and as to the reason why light and honour are allotted to this night, about this there is a sacred story told. to heliopolis and buto they go year by year and do sacrifice only: but at papremis they do sacrifice and worship as elsewhere, and besides that, when the sun begins to go down while some few of the priests are occupied with the image of the god, the greater number of them stand in the entrance of the temple with wooden clubs, and other persons to the number of more than a thousand men with purpose to perform a vow, these also having all of them staves of wood, stand in a body opposite to those: and the image, which is in a small shrine of wood covered over with gold, they take out on the day before to another sacred building. the few then who have been left about the image, draw a wain with four wheels, which bears the shrine and the image that is within the shrine, and the other priests standing in the gateway try to prevent it from entering, and the men who are under a vow come to the assistance of the god and strike them, while the others defend themselves. then there comes to be a hard fight with staves, and they break one another's heads, and i am of opinion that many even die of the wounds they receive; the egyptians however told me that no one died. this solemn assembly the people of the place say that they established for the following reason:—the mother of ares, they say, used to dwell in this temple, and ares, having been brought up away from her, when he grew up came thither desiring to visit his mother, and the attendants of his mother's temple, not having seen him before, did not permit him to pass in, but kept him away; and he brought men to help him from another city and handled roughly the attendants of the temple, and entered to visit his mother. hence, they say, this exchange of blows has become the custom in honour of ares upon his festival.

the egyptians were the first who made it a point of religion not to lie with women in temples, nor to enter into temples after going away from women without first bathing: for almost all other men except the egyptians and the hellenes lie with women in temples and enter into a temple after going away from women without bathing, since they hold that there is no difference in this respect between men and beasts: for they say that they see beasts and the various kinds of birds coupling together both in the temples and in the sacred enclosures of the gods; if then this were not pleasing to the god, the beasts would not do so.

thus do these defend that which they do, which by me is disallowed: but the egyptians are excessively careful in their observances, both in other matters which concern the sacred rites and also in those which follow:—egypt, though it borders upon libya, does not very much abound in wild animals, but such as they have are one and all accounted by them sacred, some of them living with men and others not. but if i should say for what reasons the sacred animals have been thus dedicated, i should fall into discourse of matters pertaining to the gods, of which i most desire not to speak; and what i have actually said touching slightly upon them, i said because i was constrained by necessity. about these animals there is a custom of this kind:—persons have been appointed of the egyptians, both men and women, to provide the food for each kind of beast separately, and their office goes down from father to son; and those who dwell in the various cities perform vows to them thus, that is, when they make a vow to the god to whom the animal belongs, they shave the head of their children either the whole or the half or the third part of it, and then set the hair in the balance against silver, and whatever it weighs, this the man gives to the person who provides for the animals, and she cuts up fish of equal value and gives it for food to the animals. thus food for their support has been appointed and if any one kill any of these animals, the penalty, if he do it with his own will, is death, and if against his will, such penalty as the priests may appoint: but whosoever shall kill an ibis or a hawk, whether it be with his will or against his will, must die. of the animals that live with men there are great numbers, and would be many more but for the accidents which befall the cats. for when the females have produced young they are no longer in the habit of going to the males, and these seeking to be united with them are not able. to this end then they contrive as follows,—they either take away by force or remove secretly the young from the females and kill them (but after killing they do not eat them), and the females being deprived of their young and desiring more, therefore come to the males, for it is a creature that is fond of its young. moreover when a fire occurs, the cats seem to be divinely possessed; for while the egyptians stand at intervals and look after the cats, not taking any care to extinguish the fire, the cats slipping through or leaping over the men, jump into the fire; and when this happens, great mourning comes upon the egyptians. and in whatever houses a cat has died by a natural death, all those who dwell in this house shave their eyebrows only, but those in which a dog has died shave their whole body and also their head. the cats when they are dead are carried away to sacred buildings in the city of bubastis, where after being embalmed they are buried; but the dogs they bury each people in their own city in sacred tombs; and the ichneumons are buried just in the same way as the dogs. the shrewmice however and the hawks they carry away to the city of buto, and the ibises to hermopolis; the bears (which are not commonly seen) and the wolves, not much larger in size than foxes, they bury on the spot where they are found lying.

of the crocodile the nature is as follows:—during the four most wintry months this creature eats nothing: she has four feet and is an animal belonging to the land and the water both; for she produces and hatches eggs on the land, and the most part of the day she remains upon dry land, but the whole of the night in the river, for the water in truth is warmer than the unclouded open air and the dew. of all the mortal creatures of which we have knowledge this grows to the greatest bulk from the smallest beginning; for the eggs which she produces are not much larger than those of geese and the newly-hatched young one is in proportion to the egg, but as he grows he becomes as much as seventeen cubits long and sometimes yet larger. he has eyes like those of a pig and teeth large and tusky, in proportion to the size of his body; but unlike all other beasts he grows no tongue, neither does he move his lower jaw, but brings the upper jaw towards the lower, being in this too unlike all other beasts. he has moreover strong claws and a scaly hide upon his back which cannot be pierced; and he is blind in the water, but in the air he is of a very keen sight. since he has his living in the water he keeps his mouth all full within of leeches; and whereas all other birds and beasts fly from him, the trochilus is a creature which is at peace with him, seeing that from her he receives benefit; for the crocodile having come out of the water to the land and then having opened his mouth (this he is wont to do generally towards the west wind), the trochilus upon that enters into his mouth and swallows down the leeches, and he being benefited is pleased and does no harm to the trochilus. now for some of the egyptians the crocodiles are sacred animals, and for others not so, but they treat them on the contrary as enemies: those however who dwell about thebes and about the lake of moiris hold them to be most sacred, and each of these two peoples keeps one crocodile selected from the whole number, which has been trained to tameness, and they put hanging ornaments of molten stone and of gold into the ears of these and anklets round the front feet, and they give them food appointed and victims of sacrifices and treat them as well as possible while they live, and after they are dead they bury them in sacred tombs, embalming them: but those who dwell about the city of elephantine even eat them, not holding them to be sacred. they are called not crocodiles but champsai, and the ionians gave them the name of crocodile, comparing their form to that of the crocodiles (lizards) which appear in their country in the stone walls. there are many ways in use of catching them and of various kinds: i shall describe that which to me seems the most worthy of being told. a man puts the back of a pig upon a hook as bait, and lets it go into the middle of the river, while he himself upon the bank of the river has a young live pig, which he beats; and the crocodile hearing its cries makes for the direction of the sound, and when he finds the pig's back he swallows it down: then they pull, and when he is drawn out to land, first of all the hunter forthwith plasters up his eyes with mud, and having done so he very easily gets the mastery of him, but if he does not do so he has much trouble.

the river-horse is sacred in the district of papremis, but for the other egyptians he is not sacred; and this is the appearance which he presents: he is four-footed, cloven-hoofed like an ox, flat-nosed, with a mane like a horse and showing teeth like tusks, with a tail and voice like a horse and in size as large as the largest ox; and his hide is so exceedingly thick that when it has been dried shafts of javelins are made of it. there are moreover otters in the river, which they consider to be sacred: and of fish also they esteem that which is called the lepidotos to be sacred, and also the eel; and these they say are sacred to the nile: and of birds the fox-goose.

there is also another sacred bird called the phoenix which i did not myself see except in painting, for in truth he comes to them very rarely, at intervals, as the people of heliopolis say, of five hundred years; and these say that he comes regularly when his father dies; and if he be like the painting he is of this size and nature, that is to say, some of his feathers are of gold colour and others red, and in outline and size he is as nearly as possible like an eagle. this bird they say (but i cannot believe the story) contrives as follows:—setting forth from arabia he conveys his father, they say, to the temple of the sun (helios) plastered up in myrrh, and buries him in the temple of the sun; and he conveys him thus:—he forms first an egg of myrrh as large as he is able to carry, and then he makes trial of carrying it, and when he has made trial sufficiently, then he hollows out the egg and places his father within it and plasters over with other myrrh that part of the egg where he hollowed it out to put his father in, and when his father is laid in it, it proves (they say) to be of the same weight as it was; and after he has plastered it up, he conveys the whole to egypt to the temple of the sun. thus they say that this bird does.

there are also about thebes sacred serpents, not at all harmful to men, which are small in size and have two horns growing from the top of the head: these they bury when they die in the temple of zeus, for to this god they say that they are sacred. there is a region moreover in arabia, situated nearly over against the city of buto, to which place i came to inquire about the winged serpents: and when i came thither i saw bones of serpents and spines in quantity so great that it is impossible to make report of the number, and there were heaps of spines, some heaps large and others less large and others smaller still than these, and these heaps were many in number. this region in which the spines are scattered upon the ground is of the nature of an entrance from a narrow mountain pass to a great plain, which plain adjoins the plain in egypt; and the story goes that at the beginning of spring winged serpents from arabia fly towards egypt, and the birds called ibises meet them at the entrance to this country and do not suffer the serpents to go by but kill them. on account of this deed it is (say the arabians) that the ibis has come to be greatly honoured by the egyptians, and the egyptians also agree that it is for this reason that they honour these birds. the outward form of the ibis is this:—it is a deep black all over, and has legs like those of a crane and a very curved beak, and in size it is about equal to a rail: this is the appearance of the black kind which fight with the serpents, but of those which most crowd round men's feet (for there are two several kinds of ibises) the head is bare and also the whole of the throat, and it is white in feathering except the head and neck and the extremities of the wings and the rump (in all these parts of which i have spoken it is a deep black), while in legs and in the form of the head it resembles the other. as for the serpent its form is like that of the watersnake; and it has wings not feathered but most nearly resembling the wings of the bat. let so much suffice as has been said now concerning sacred animals.

of the egyptians themselves, those who dwell in the part of egypt which is sown for crops practise memory more than any other men and are the most learned in history by far of all those of whom i have had experience: and their manner of life is as follows:—for three successive days in each month they purge, hunting after health with emetics and clysters, and they think that all the diseases which exist are produced in men by the food on which they live: for the egyptians are from other causes also the most healthy of all men next after the libyans (in my opinion on account of the seasons, because the seasons do not change, for by the changes of things generally, and especially of the seasons, diseases are most apt to be produced in men), and as to their diet, it is as follows:—they eat bread, making loaves of maize, which they call kyllestis, and they use habitually a wine made out of barley, for vines they have not in their land. of their fish some they dry in the sun and then eat them without cooking, others they eat cured in brine. of birds they eat quails and ducks and small birds without cooking, after first curing them; and everything else which they have belonging to the class of birds or fishes, except such as have been set apart by them as sacred, they eat roasted or boiled. in the entertainments of the rich among them, when they have finished eating, a man bears round a wooden figure of a dead body in a coffin, made as like the reality as may be both by painting and carving, and measuring about a cubit or two cubits each way; and this he shows to each of those who are drinking together, saying: "when thou lookest upon this, drink and be merry, for thou shalt be such as this when thou art dead." thus they do at their carousals. the customs which they practise are derived from their fathers and they do not acquire others in addition; but besides other customary things among them which are worthy of mention, they have one song, that of linos, the same who is sung of both in phenicia and in cyprus and elsewhere, having however a name different according to the various nations. this song agrees exactly with that which the hellenes sing calling on the name of linos, so that besides many other things about which i wonder among those matters which concern egypt, i wonder especially about this, namely whence they got the song of linos. it is evident however that they have sung this song from immemorial time, and in the egyptian tongue linos is called maneros. the egyptians told me that he was the only son of him who first became king of egypt, and that he died before his time and was honoured with these lamentations by the egyptians, and that this was their first and only song. in another respect the egyptians are in agreement with some of the hellenes, namely with the lacedemonians, but not with the rest, that is to say, the younger of them when they meet the elder give way and move out of the path, and when their elders approach, they rise out of their seat. in this which follows however they are not in agreement with any of the hellenes,—instead of addressing one another in the roads they do reverence, lowering their hand down to their knee. they wear tunics of linen about their legs with fringes, which they call calasiris; above these they have garments of white wool thrown over: woolen garments however are not taken into the temples, nor are they buried with them, for this is not permitted by religion. in these points they are in agreement with the observances called orphic and bacchic (which are really egyptian), and also with those of the pythagoreans, for one who takes part in these mysteries is also forbidden by religious rule to be buried in woolen garments; and about this there is a sacred story told.

besides these things the egyptians have found out also to what god each month and each day belongs, and what fortunes a man will meet with who is born on any particular day, and how he will die, and what kind of a man he will be: and these inventions were taken up by those of the hellenes who occupied themselves about poesy. portents too have been found out by them more than by all other men besides; for when a portent has happened, they observe and write down the event which comes of it, and if ever afterwards anything resembling this happens, they believe that the event which comes of it will be similar. their divination is ordered thus:—the art is assigned not to any man but to certain of the gods, for there are in their land oracles of heracles, of apollo, of athene, of artemis, or ares, and of zeus, and moreover that which they hold most in honour of all, namely the oracle of leto which is in the city of buto. the manner of divination however is not established among them according to the same fashion everywhere, but is different in different places. the art of medicine among them is distributed thus:—each physician is a physician of one disease and of no more; and the whole country is full of physicians, for some profess themselves to be physicians of the eyes, others of the head, others of the teeth, others of the affections of the stomach, and others of the more obscure ailments.

their fashions of mourning and of burial are these:—whenever any household has lost a man who is of any regard amongst them, the whole number of women of that house forthwith plaster over their heads or even their faces with mud. then leaving the corpse within the house they go themselves to and fro about the city and beat themselves, with their garments bound up by a girdle and their breasts exposed, and with them go all the women who are related to the dead man, and on the other side the men beat themselves, they too having their garments bound up by a girdle; and when they have done this, they then convey the body to the embalming. in this occupation certain persons employ themselves regularly and inherit this as a craft. these, whenever a corpse is conveyed to them, show to those who brought it wooden models of corpses made like reality by painting, and the best of the ways of embalming they say is that of him whose name i think it impiety to mention when speaking of a matter of such a kind; the second which they show is less good than this and also less expensive; and the third is the least expensive of all. having told them about this, they inquire of them in which way they desire the corpse of their friend to be prepared. then they after they have agreed for a certain price depart out of the way, and the others being left behind in the buildings embalm according to the best of these ways thus:—first with the crooked iron tool they draw out the brain through the nostrils, extracting it partly thus and partly by pouring in drugs; and after this with a sharp stone of ethiopia they make a cut along the side and take out the whole contents of the belly, and when they have cleared out the cavity and cleansed it with palm-wine they cleanse it again with spices pounded up: then they fill the belly with pure myrrh pounded up and with cassia and other spices except frankincense, and sew it together again. having so done they keep it for embalming covered up in natron for seventy days, but for a longer time than this it is not permitted to embalm it; and when the seventy days are past, they wash the corpse and roll its whole body up in fine linen cut into bands, smearing these beneath with gum, which the egyptians use generally instead of glue. then the kinsfolk receive it from them and have a wooden figure made in the shape of a man, and when they have had this made they enclose the corpse, and having shut it up within, they store it then in a sepulchral chamber, setting it to stand upright against the wall. thus they deal with the corpses which are prepared in the most costly way; but for those who desire the middle way and wish to avoid great cost they prepare the corpse as follows:—having filled their syringes with the oil which is got from cedar-wood, with this they forthwith fill the belly of the corpse, and this they do without having either cut it open or taken out the bowels, but they inject the oil by the breech, and having stopped the drench from returning back they keep it then the appointed number of days for embalming, and on the last of the days they let the cedar oil come out from the belly, which they before put in; and it has such power that it brings out with it the bowels and interior organs of the body dissolved; and the natron dissolves the flesh, so that there is left of the corpse only the skin and the bones. when they have done this they give back the corpse at once in that condition without working upon it any more. the third kind of embalming, by which are prepared the bodies of those who have less means, is as follows:—they cleanse out the belly with a purge and then keep the body for embalming during the seventy days, and at once after that they give it back to the bringers to carry away. the wives of men of rank when they die are not given at once to be embalmed, nor such women as are very beautiful or of greater regard than others, but on the third or fourth day after their death (and not before) they are delivered to the embalmers. they do so about this matter in order that the embalmers may not abuse their women, for they say that one of them was taken once doing so to the corpse of a woman lately dead, and his fellow-craftsman gave information. whenever any one, either of the egyptians themselves or of strangers, is found to have been carried off by a crocodile or brought to his death by the river itself, the people of any city by which he may have been cast up on land must embalm him and lay him out in the fairest way they can and bury him in a sacred burial-place, nor may any of his relations or friends besides touch him, but the priests of the nile themselves handle the corpse and bury it as that of one who was something more than man.

hellenic usages they will by no means follow, and to speak generally they follow those of no other men whatever. this rule is observed by most of the egyptians; but there is a large city named chemmis in the theban district near neapolis, and in this city there is a temple of perseus the son of danae which is of a square shape, and round it grow date-palms: the gateway of the temple is built of stone and of very great size, and at the entrance of it stand two great statues of stone. within this enclosure is a temple-house and in it stands an image of perseus. these people of chemmis say that perseus is wont often to appear in their land and often within the temple, and that a sandal which has been worn by him is found sometimes, being in length two cubits, and whenever this appears all egypt prospers. this they say, and they do in honour of perseus after hellenic fashion thus,—they hold an athletic contest, which includes the whole list of games, and they offer in prizes cattle and cloaks and skins: and when i inquired why to them alone perseus was wont to appear, and wherefore they were separated from all the other egyptians in that they held an athletic contest, they said that perseus had been born of their city, for danaos and lynkeus were men of chemmis and had sailed to hellas, and from them they traced a descent and came down to perseus: and they told me that he had come to egypt for the reason which the hellenes also say, namely to bring from libya the gorgon's head, and had then visited them also and recognised all his kinsfolk, and they said that he had well learnt the name of chemmis before he came to egypt, since he had heard it from his mother, and that they celebrated an athletic contest for him by his own command.

all these are customs practised by the egyptians who dwell above the fens: and those who are settled in the fenland have the same customs for the most part as the other egyptians, both in other matters and also in that they live each with one wife only, as do the hellenes; but for economy in respect of food they have invented these things besides:—when the river has become full and the plains have been flooded, there grow in the water great numbers of lilies, which the egyptians call lotos; these they cut with a sickle and dry in the sun, and then they pound that which grows in the middle of the lotos and which is like the head of a poppy, and they make of it loaves baked with fire. the root also of this lotos is edible and has a rather sweet taste: it is round in shape and about the size of an apple. there are other lilies too, in flower resembling roses, which also grow in the river, and from them the fruit is produced in a separate vessel springing from the root by the side of the plant itself, and very nearly resembles a wasp's comb: in this there grow edible seeds in great numbers of the size of an olive-stone, and they are eaten either fresh or dried. besides this they pull up from the fens the papyrus which grows every year, and the upper parts of it they cut off and turn to other uses, but that which is left below for about a cubit in length they eat or sell: and those who desire to have the papyrus at its very best bake it in an oven heated red-hot, and then eat it. some too of these people live on fish alone, which they dry in the sun after having caught them and taken out the entrails, and then when they are dry, they use them for food.

fish which swim in shoals are not much produced in the rivers, but are bred in the lakes, and they do as follows:—when there comes upon them the desire to breed, they swim out in shoals towards the sea; and the males lead the way shedding forth their milt as they go, while the females, coming after and swallowing it up, from it become impregnated: and when they have become full of young in the sea they swim up back again, each shoal to its own haunts. the same however no longer lead the way as before, but the lead comes now to the females, and they leading the way in shoals do just as the males did, that is to say they shed forth their eggs by a few grains at a time, and the males coming after swallow them up. now these grains are fish, and from the grains which survive and are not swallowed, the fish grow which afterwards are bred up. now those of the fish which are caught as they swim out towards the sea are found to be rubbed on the left side of the head, but those which are caught as they swim up again are rubbed on the right side. this happens to them because as they swim down to the sea they keep close to the land on the left side of the river, and again as they swim up they keep to the same side, approaching and touching the bank as much as they can, for fear doubtless of straying from their course by reason of the stream. when the nile begins to swell, the hollow places of the land and the depressions by the side of the river first begin to fill, as the water soaks through from the river, and so soon as they become full of water, at once they are all filled with little fishes; and whence these are in all likelihood produced, i think that i perceive. in the preceding year, when the nile goes down, the fish first lay eggs in the mud and then retire with the last of the retreating waters; and when the time comes round again, and the water once more comes over the land, from these eggs forthwith are produced the fishes of which i speak.

thus it is as regards the fish. and for anointing those of the egyptians who dwell in the fens use oil from the castor-berry, which oil the egyptians call kiki, and thus they do:—they sow along the banks of the rivers and pools these plants, which in a wild form grow of themselves in the land of the hellenes; these are sown in egypt and produce berries in great quantity but of an evil smell; and when they have gathered these some cut them up and press the oil from them, others again roast them first and then boil them down and collect that which runs away from them. the oil is fat and not less suitable for burning than olive-oil, but it gives forth a disagreeable smell. against the gnats, which are very abundant, they have contrived as follows:—those who dwell above the fen-land are helped by the towers, to which they ascend when they go to rest; for the gnats by reason of the winds are not able to fly up high: but those who dwell in the fenland have contrived another way instead of the towers, and this it is:—every man of them has got a casting net, with which by day he catches fish, but in the night he uses it for this purpose, that is to say he puts the casting-net round about the bed in which he sleeps, and then creeps in under it and goes to sleep: and the gnats, if he sleeps rolled up in a garment or a linen sheet, bite through these, but through the net they do not even attempt to bite.

their boats with which they carry cargoes are made of the thorny acacia, of which the form is very like that of the kyrenian lotos, and that which exudes from it is gum. from this tree they cut pieces of wood about two cubits in length and arrange them like bricks, fastening the boat together by running a great number of long bolts through the two-cubits pieces; and when they have thus fastened the boat together, they lay cross-pieces over the top, using no ribs for the sides; and within they caulk the seams with papyrus. they make one steering-oar for it, which is passed through the bottom of the boat; and they have a mast of acacia and sails of papyrus. these boats cannot sail up the river unless there be a very fresh wind blowing, but are towed from the shore: down-stream however they travel as follows:—they have a door-shaped crate made of tamarisk wood and reed mats sewn together, and also a stone of about two talents weight bored with a hole; and of these the boatman lets the crate float on in front of the boat, fastened with a rope, and the stone drags behind by another rope. the crate then, as the force of the stream presses upon it, goes on swiftly and draws on the baris (for so these boats are called), while the stone dragging after it behind and sunk deep in the water keeps its course straight. these boats they have in great numbers and some of them carry many thousands of talents' burden.

when the nile comes over the land, the cities alone are seen rising above the water, resembling more nearly than anything else the islands in the egean sea; for the rest of egypt becomes a sea and the cities alone rise above water. accordingly, whenever this happens, they pass by water not now by the channels of the river but over the midst of the plain: for example, as one sails up from naucratis to memphis the passage is then close by the pyramids, whereas the usual passage is not the same even here, but goes by the point of the delta and the city of kercasoros; while if you sail over the plain to naucratis from the sea and from canobos, you will go by anthylla and the city called after archander. of these anthylla is a city of note and is especially assigned to the wife of him who reigns over egypt, to supply her with sandals, (this is the case since the time when egypt came to be under the persians): the other city seems to me to have its name from archander the son-in-law of danaos, who was the son of phthios, the son of achaios; for it is called the city of archander. there might indeed by another archander, but in any case the name is not egyptian.