so far as the rank and file of the french army are concerned, no officer above the rank of colonel is of consequence, for the man in the ranks is not likely to come in contact with a general officer once in a twelvemonth. the colonel is the head of the regiment, whether of artillery, cavalry, or infantry, and his authority extends in every direction over the men he commands. with the help of the conseil d'administration he directs the administration of his regiment, and he is responsible for discipline and instruction, all forms of military education, sanitation, and police control, while, needless to say, he is held responsible for the efficiency of the regiment and the appearance of its men. he has absolute power as regards the appointment of all non-commissioned officers and corporals, who, in the french army, do not rank as non-commissioned officers.

corresponding very nearly with the "second-in-command" common to british units, the lieutenant-colonel of a french regiment acts on behalf of the colonel, and is the intermediary of the latter in every branch of the service. in the absence of the colonel the lieutenant-colonel is empowered to issue orders in his name, and he is also especially charged with the discipline and conduct of the officers of the regiment. he keeps the report books concerning the officers, and is responsible for the entering up of reports as regards their military and private conduct and their efficiency. the colonel, however, countersigns the reports, adding whatever notes he may think desirable.

the french equivalent of the major of english cavalry is the chef d'escadron, of whom there are two to each regiment, each in command of two service squadrons. one is specially appointed to presidency over the commission des ordinaires or arrangements for the food supply of the regiment, while the other presides over the commission d'abattage, which, in addition to the actual killing of horses, when such a step is necessary, is concerned with arrangements for forage and all matters connected with equine supplies. each of the chefs d'escadron is responsible for the culinary arrangements of his two squadrons, and the management of canteens is also under his supervision. the two chefs are in charge of the barrack police and transmit their orders with regard to this duty through a captain and an adjutant.

the officer known in the british service as quartermaster is termed major in the french army, but the french major has more definite authority than the british quartermaster. under his charge are placed the regulation of pay and accounts, the making of purchases, the supervision of equipment and barrack furniture, etc. the french major, in addition to these head-quarters duties which concern the well-being of the whole regiment, has definite command of the fifth squadron, which forms the depot for the regiment in case of war.

from the major the capitaine trésorier receives the pay and monies which have to be distributed to the regiment. he is a member of the conseil d'administration, from which he receives his authorisation to make payment. the pay of the men is handed to them every fifth day, when the capitaine trésorier or paymaster hands over to the sergeant-major of each squadron, or to the captain commanding, the pay of the squadron for distribution among the men. he also makes all payments and issues demands for supplies for the horses of the regiment, and a lieutenant or sub-lieutenant is appointed to assist the paymaster in his duties.

the capitaine d'habillement is the head of the regimental workshops of every description; he is held responsible for the well-being of the armoury, clothing stores, and barrack furniture, of which establishments he keeps the accounts. he has in addition to superintend all the regimental workshops, including those of the tailor, boot-maker, saddler, etc. his assistant is a lieutenant known as the porte étendard, who carries the colours of the regiment on parade—for in french armies the colours are still carried on parade and into action, unlike the rule of the british army, which has abandoned the carrying of colours into action for many years.

the capitaine-instructeur is deputed to attend to the instruction of the non-commissioned officers of the regiment, and is held responsible for their efficiency in matters of drill and discipline. he also lectures junior officers on their duties with regard to drill, shooting, veterinary matters, topography, etc., and he is specially responsible that the adjutants of the regiment perform their duties properly.

of officers of the rank of captain, two are appointed to each squadron, the senior being the capitaine commandant and the junior the capitaine en second, or junior captain. the senior captain is in charge of the squadron, which in peace time has a strength of about 120 officers and men, but for active service has its strength raised considerably. he is responsible for the military education of his squadron, for the discipline of the rank and file, and the condition of the horses and stables, and he is also responsible for the pay and supplies of the squadron handed over to him by the paymaster and others. he has control of the promotion of non-commissioned officers and the leave granted to non-commissioned officers and men. he is responsible to the chef d'escadron for the efficient performance of his duties.

the second captain of each squadron is, as regards squadron duties, under the orders of the captain commanding, and is especially concerned with all matters affecting food supplies. in addition to his squadron duties, he has to take his turn every fifth week as "captain of the week," when he has to supervise roll calls and assemblies, and the mounting and dismounting of guards. as captain of the week he supervises the cleanliness and security of the barracks and the work of the police.

of lieutenants and sub-lieutenants, four are appointed to each squadron, each being responsible for a peloton or troop of men. responsible to the senior captain of the squadron for the performance of his duties, the lieutenant is expected to instruct his men at drill, supervise their work in stables, and see that their barrack rooms are properly kept. the lieutenant is empowered to hold such inspections of kit and clothes as he may think necessary.

to every regiment two doctors are appointed, holding the ranks of captain and lieutenant respectively. each regiment of cavalry and artillery is also provided with two veterinary surgeons. as the duties of these officers are of a non-combatant nature, they are not materially concerned with the discipline or military efficiency of the regiment to which they are attached.

corresponding to the warrant-officer of the british army and standing as intermediary between officers and non-commissioned officers of the french army, the adjudants are appointed in the number of three to a regiment. two of these known simply as adjudants have different duties from the third, to whom is given the title of adjudant vaguemestre. the two adjudants assist the work of the captain-instructor in immediately superintending the efficiency of non-commissioned officers. all sergeants and corporals are subject to their authority, and, in alternate weeks, each takes turn as "adjudant of the week" under the captain of the week. in this orderly duty the adjudant of the week keeps the rolls of sergeants and corporals, and arranges their turns of duty. he keeps the register of punishments of non-commissioned officers and the rank and file, and is responsible for the sounding of all regimental calls; he transmits the orders of the colonel to the sergeant-majors of the squadrons, and inspects the morning roll-call of each squadron. he attends to the closing of canteens and sees that "lights out" is obeyed in the barrack rooms. the position of adjudant in the french army is one of considerable authority, which, to the credit of the service be it said, is seldom abused. the adjudant vaguemestre is but a minor official by comparison with the other two. he is generally a non-commissioned officer who has nearly finished his period of service, and he acts as regimental postman and postmaster, being, on the whole, a sort of handy man for all matters of business in which responsibility is incurred.

the sergeant-major of each squadron has almost as much authority as the adjudant. he is, among the non-commissioned officers, what the senior captain is among commissioned officers; he stands as right-hand man to the senior captain, and, in constant contact with the non-commissioned officers and men of the squadron, is able very largely to influence the judgment of the captain with regard to the rank and file. he gives all the captain's orders to the squadron with regard to instruction, discipline, dress, etc. he is responsible for the keeping of books and registers, and for this work has appointed to him as assistants a sergeant fourrier and corporal fourrier. he is in charge of the squadron stores and of all the matériel of the squadron.

the sergeants are appointed in the number of one to a troop, and are held responsible for the efficiency of the corporals and troopers. they take turns as "sergeant of the week" for their squadrons, a duty corresponding to that of the orderly-sergeant in the british army. nominally, the sergeant of each troop is responsible to the lieutenant or sub-lieutenant of the troop, but in reality the sergeant is more under control of the squadron sergeant-major, and, through him, of the captain. the sergeant drills the men of his troop; he is responsible that the troop barrack room is properly kept; that kits and clothing are kept clean and complete; that arms and saddlery, also, are kept in order. as sergeant of the week, the sergeant inspects and reports to the sergeant-major the correctness of morning and evening roll-call; he keeps the roll of fatigue men, and also of men in the squadron for guard; he parades the sick for inspection by the doctor and also parades all men for fatigues and guards. the sergeant fourrier holding the rank of sergeant is more of the nature of squadron clerk, as his duties, with the exception of escorting men sent to hospital, consist mainly in keeping books and accounts, in which he has the corporal fourrier to help him.

the corporal of the french army is placed in charge of a squad of about ten men; he sleeps in the same room with them, is responsible for their personal cleanliness and the arrangement of their kits, and sees that any men of his squad for guard or special duty turn out correctly. he superintends the general cleaning of kit which the captain orders weekly, and a rather curious duty which falls to his lot is to see that the troopers of his squad change their linen once a week. this, however, is not so curious as may appear at first sight, for it must be borne in mind that the french army sweeps up every class of citizen into its net, and with some of the men personal cleanliness is so little a habit that insistence on the point by one in authority is a necessity.

in addition to these intimate matters the french corporal has to superintend the drill of recruits, teach them to arrange their kit and packs, and show them methods of cleaning arms and kit, and grooming horses. he is empowered to inflict minor punishments which he must report to the sergeant in charge of the troop. the corporal is responsible for the maintenance of order in the barrack room, for the proper serving of meals, and the compliance with the order for "lights out"; he takes turn as corporal of the week with his fellows, and in that capacity is deputy for and assistant to the sergeant of the week. altogether, the corporal of the french army has a very busy time, and in addition to this his position is not so secure as that of the british corporal; the latter's rank counts as a definite promotion, while the rank of the french corporal is only an appointment, and he may find himself "reduced" much more quickly than the british man in an equivalent position.

the conscript system, leading to a number of unwilling soldiers, is much more provocative of punishments than the voluntary system. in the latter, all men who enlist get the habit of making the best of their service; they have joined the army of their own free will, and have only themselves to blame if they do not like it. in a conscript army, however, there are many who hate the limitations imposed on them by service in time of peace, and enter only with a view to getting the business over and getting back to their former positions in life; it is a disagreeable necessity, the period of military service, and they are there to do as little as possible, without any regard to the welfare of the country, though a national emergency like the present finds every man willing to do his part. not that such an attitude is the rule in time of peace, but, especially among the very lowest classes, it is not unusual. since it is impossible to make sheep and goats of the men, but all must be treated alike, discipline is much more rigid and severe than in the british army—which is the only voluntary european army from which comparisons can be drawn. the view is taken—necessarily taken—that men must be compelled to do their work and learn their lessons of drill and shooting; for those who give trouble in any way, there is the salle de police, or guard-room, the prison for worse offences, and, for hardened offenders, there is service in the dreaded disciplinary battalions of algeria. this last form of punishment is resorted to only in the case of men who have "committed one or several faults, the gravity of which makes any other mode of repression inadequate."

contrary to the rule of the british army, in which only commanding and company or squadron officers are empowered to inflict punishment, in the french army any man can be punished by any other man holding a rank superior to his own, under all circumstances that may arise. as an instance: if a private of a british regiment insulted a corporal of another regiment, the case would be reported to the man's own commanding officer, who in due time would investigate the case and inflict the requisite punishment for the offence; in the french army, if a private were guilty of a similar offence, the injured corporal would be at liberty to inflict the punishment on his own account; his action would have to be confirmed by a superior officer, but, under the rules governing the administration of punishment, there would be no difficulty about that.

the officer in command of a regiment has power to increase, diminish, or even cancel punishments inflicted by inferior officers, and the captain in charge of a squadron has a like power over the subordinate officers directly under his command and over the punishments they may inflict.

this system of giving so much power to all has more against it than in its favour. certainly, given a just junior officer or non-commissioned officer, he is more likely to inflict a punishment that fits the crime than the commanding officer to whom he may report the case—he knows all the circumstances better than the man to whom he may tell them, and, in direct contact with the offender at the time the offence was committed, is not so likely to err on the side of undue severity or that of undue leniency—and that is about all that can be said in favour of the system. against it must be said that it places in the hands of very many men, of all ranks and grades, a tremendous power which may easily be abused; under such a system a sergeant or corporal who has a grudge against a particular man can make that man's life a perfect misery to him, and, since in a conscript army authority must be upheld at all costs, even more than in a volunteer army, the right of complaint which belongs to the man is not often of much use to them—discipline would be impaired if officers upheld their men against their non-commissioned officers.

further, officers are more liable to punishment in the french army than in the british. in the latter force, a court-martial on an officer is a very rare thing, but in the french service the equivalent to a court-martial is not an infrequent occurrence, and a certain percentage of officers get "confined to room," "confined to fortress," suspended from duty for varying periods, and cashiered (dismissed from the service),—these things happening with considerably greater frequency than in the british army. it must be said, on the other hand, that the french officer has more required of him in time of peace than the british officer; he is required to be in closer contact with his men, and to undertake more arduous duties, and, on the whole, french officers are keen soldiers, intent on the performance of their duties, taking themselves and their work very seriously. the lesson of metz in 1870 has not been wasted on the modern french army, and the knowledge that some day the nation would again take up arms against its eastern neighbour has led to a strict maintenance of efficiency on the part of the officers of the army, and to a keenness quite equal to that shown in a voluntary force.

non-commissioned officers are subject to punishments of a more severe nature than those inflicted on their fellows in the british army—the constant comparison between the two, in matters of discipline, is necessary in order to give a clear idea of conditions of service for all ranks of the french army. the british non-commissioned officer is either reprimanded or reduced to the ranks; the french non-commissioned officer may be confined to barracks after evening roll-call, confined to his room for slight breaches of discipline, or sent to prison and still retain his rank on his release, a thing impossible in the british service. only for repeated misdemeanours are non-commissioned officers reduced to the ranks, while one offence is sufficient to ensure this punishment in the british service. privates are punished in various ways according to the nature of the offence committed. the lightest punishment of all consists of extra fatigue duty; next in order comes inspection on guard parade, the man in question being compelled to parade with the guard in full marching order for a definite number of times; confinement to barracks for a stated period is inflicted for still more serious but still light offences; being sent to the salle de police is a considerably severer form of punishment, and consists in the offenders being kept at night in the guard-room, doing ordinary duty during the day, and, in addition, doing all sorts of fatigues and making themselves scavengers for the regiment. prison and solitary confinement in cells are two forms of punishment allotted to really bad characters, on whom the previously named forms of punishment have not sufficient effect. finally, there are the algerian disciplinary battalions, and the man who is sent to one of these may be reckoned as a criminal, as a rule. it is a curious fact that reading a newspaper constitutes an offence against discipline in the french army, and no newspapers are permitted to be brought into barracks.

the list of officers given in this chapter has been taken from the staff of a french cavalry regiment, but it applies almost identically to artillery units, while, in the case of infantry units, it is necessary only to delete all that refers to the care of horses, and the staff of officers and non-commissioned officers is practically the same as in the cavalry. the french "regiment" of artillery is a similar unit of strength to that of most great continental armies, though it has no equivalent in the british service, where the artillery is grouped in units known as brigades, of not much more than half the strength of the continental regiment. the french cavalry regiment also is considerably stronger than the british cavalry unit, containing five squadrons to the latter's four. this brings the cavalry regiment of the french army nearly up to the strength of the infantry unit.

the matter of punishments has been dwelt on at some length, owing to the prominence given to punishment in the french army. made up as it is of every class, the members of which are compelled to serve whether they like it or no, punishment is a necessity, and a frequent one at that, in the case of all ranks. it does not, however, alter the fact that the great majority of french conscripts are keen and willing soldiers, who make the best of their service and give a good account of themselves.