though courage is concerned with feelings of confidence and of fear, it is not concerned with both alike, but more with the things that inspire fear; for he who is undisturbed in face of these and bears himself as he should towards these is more truly brave than the man who does so towards the things that inspire confidence. it is for facing what is painful, then, as has been said, that men are called brave. hence also courage involves pain, and is justly praised; for it is harder to face what is painful than to abstain from what is pleasant.

yet the end which courage sets before it would seem to be pleasant, but to be concealed by the attending circumstances, as happens also in athletic contests; for the end at which boxers aim is pleasant — the crown and the honours — but the blows they take are distressing to flesh and blood, and painful, and so is their whole exertion; and because the blows and the exertions are many the end, which is but small, appears to have nothing pleasant in it. and so, if the case of courage is similar, death and wounds will be painful to the brave man and against his will, but he will face them because it is noble to do so or because it is base not to do so. and the more he is possessed of virtue in its entirety and the happier he is, the more he will be pained at the thought of death; for life is best worth living for such a man, and he is knowingly losing the greatest goods, and this is painful. but he is none the less brave, and perhaps all the more so, because he chooses noble deeds of war at that cost. it is not the case, then, with all the virtues that the exercise of them is pleasant, except in so far as it reaches its end. but it is quite possible that the best soldiers may be not men of this sort but those who are less brave but have no other good; for these are ready to face danger, and they sell their life for trifling gains.

so much, then, for courage; it is not difficult to grasp its nature in outline, at any rate, from what has been said.