the presidents of the continental congress—as the legislative body of the united states was called up to 1789, when the new constitution went in effect—were chosen by its members, which then consisted of only one house, in the same manner as the speaker of the house of representatives is chosen now; nor was his authority more extensive. he was simply the presiding officer of a legislative body; and one that had by no means the effective authority of our present congress, although no body in the world ever more deserved the gratitude and reverence of all time; for it founded and gave direction and character to a great nation—it may be, the greatest the world will ever know.
these presidents had little, except the name, in common with the presidents of the united states, as the constitution made them. the presidents were now to be appointed by the people, and become the depositaries of the power of the nation in action. it was fit that, in a government deriving all its authority from the people, as the source of power, its special agent, its acting representative, should be chosen by them.
in the summer of 1788 three-fourths of the states had ratified the constitution, and it became authoritative as the fundamental law of the country. the continental congress, therefore, closed its own career by ordering elections for the[378] new congress, and for the electors who were to appoint the first president. it directed that these elections should take place on the first wednesday in january, 1789; that the electors should meet on the first wednesday in february following, to discharge the duty to which they were appointed; and that, on the first wednesday in march, (which, in that year, was the fourth,) congress should meet, the president be inaugurated, and the new government be put in operation.
this brought all these important events close upon the heels of one another; and on the 4th of march there was not a quorum of the members of congress assembled. the states lay far apart, and the roads were bad in those times, and at that season of the year. though a bare quorum had gathered by the last of march, and many measures of pressing necessity were attended to, a full representation was waited for before the president elect was notified that they were ready for his inauguration; and that event took place only on the 30th of april. the presidential term, however, was considered to have legally commenced at the time previously ordered, and closed on that day of the year and month; so that it became the first day of our political year. it commences and closes the president’s term of office and ends the regular session of congress.
first election, 1789.
there were but 69 electors, and the choice of george washington for president, and john adams for vice-president, was unanimous. he had declared, when resigning his commission as commander-in-chief, that he took leave “of all the employments of public life,” and only the earnest solicitations of the leading public men of the time, and their opinion that he alone could successfully inaugurate the new government, decided him to leave his cherished retirement. washington’s ambition was known to be free from spot or stain of self seeking, and his moderation and judgment were trusted in as the sheet anchor of a new government which many feared would become too strong for the liberties of the people. they[379] dreaded an abuse of power; but they had no fear of such abuse while wielded by washington. there was a solid foundation to washington’s fame, in his character.
the presidential electors were mainly chosen by the state legislatures during the times immediately following the adoption of the constitution. that instrument did not decide how they should be chosen, but left it to the discretion of the state governments. in some states conventions chose them, and the practice was various; but after a time it proved to be more satisfactory to refer the choice directly to the people, and very soon the people themselves practically selected the president, the electors being pledged to the choice of the candidate favored by their constituents, so that their significance was lost. it is a proof of the popular character of our government. the system of electors indicated a fear of the people; a want of confidence in their judgment and self control. the electors, it was supposed, would be wiser, less accessible to passion and caprice than those who elected them. the people set them quietly aside, and proceeded to do their own work themselves, using the electors only to register their decision. public men have seldom ventured to oppose the clearly formed and definite purposes of the people.
the second election, 1792.
washington was again unanimously elected. he desired to lay down the burdens of office; but so many perplexing questions and disturbing influences threatened the stability of the government that he could not be spared. his name and character were a rock of strength. john adams was re-elected vice-president. only 11 states had voted at the first election; north carolina and rhode island not having then ratified the constitution. they had now done so, and vermont and kentucky had been admitted, so that there were 15 states voting at this election. there were 132 electors. washington declined another election absolutely, and the government had proved so suitable as to be fairly settled in the confidence of the people.
[380]
the third election, 1796.
four persons were voted for at this election.
john adams received 71 electoral votes.
thomas jefferson ” 69 ”
thomas pinckney ” 59 ”
aaron burr ” 38 ”
as, by the constitutional provision regarding electors, the person having the largest number of votes became president, and the one who had the next in number became vice-president, adams was now president, and jefferson vice-president. tennessee had now been admitted into the union, and there were 16 states voting.
conflicting views on foreign policy, and vexing questions of internal administration began to exert a strong influence, and party spirit, for the next twenty years, was very bitter. mr. adams was a federalist; mr. jefferson was an anti-federalist.
the fourth election, 1800.
the same candidates were again in the field. the political parties had become clearly defined. adams and pinckney were the federal candidates, receiving—adams, 64, pinckney 63, electoral votes, while jefferson and burr had each 73. they were of the anti-federal, or republican party.
the election did not decide which of the two, jefferson or burr, should be president and vice-president, and, by the provisions of the constitution, the house of representatives decided it in favor of jefferson. party heats were so great that it took 7 days and 36 ballots to reach this result. it was felt that there was a defect in the constitutional provision that left it undecided, in such a case, which of the candidates was the choice of the electors for president, and it resulted in the ratification of the 12th amendment before the next election.
the federal party never regained the power of administration lost at this election, though they continued to be a strong opposition until the close of the war of 1812. but[381] an opposition, to criticize and point out faults, is often more useful out of office than in; and the republican party was obliged to adopt substantially the general features of the policy pursued by their predecessors, while they added some very important ones of their own, in their disposition to favor popular rights.
the fifth election, 1804.
thomas jefferson and george clinton were the candidates of the republicans. charles c. pinckney and rufus king of the federalists.
jefferson was popular, and received 162 votes—clinton receiving the same. pinckney and king received only 14 votes. the admission of ohio, in 1802, made 17 states to vote at this election.
the federal party was much weaker than in the following election.
the sixth election, 1808.
james madison was the republican candidate for president, and geo. clinton for vice-president. pinckney and king were again candidates on the part of the federalists.
madison received 123 electoral votes.
clinton ” 113 ”
pinckney and king each, 47 ”
geo. clinton died before the end of his term. there was the same number of states voting as in the previous election, viz.: 17.
the seventh election, 1812.
madison was re-elected, with elbridge gerry as vice-president. they each received 128 electoral votes.
de witt clinton and jared ingersoll, the candidates of the federal party, received, clinton 89, ingersoll 57, votes. louisiana having been recently admitted into the union, there were now 18 states.
war with england was formally declared this year. it had[382] actually begun on the ocean sometime before. it was a very trying and painful presidential term, owing to the violent and injudicious opposition made to the measures of the government, and the unfortunate choice of generals for the first two years; yet the ultimate result was highly creditable to the standing and reputation of the united states, and put an end to the annoying and insulting interferences with our vessels and commerce that had brought it on. it was a war waged for the honor and inviolability of our flag, which was ever after duly respected.
the eighth election, 1816.
james monroe and daniel d. tompkins were the candidates of the republicans, who now began to be called democrats. the federalist party was now near its end. it nominated rufus king who received 34 electoral votes, monroe obtaining 183.
indiana was admitted this year in time to vote, making 19 states. this period marked an important era in the internal history, as well as foreign relations, of the country. the period of trial for the constitution was passed, and full confidence began to be felt in the system it had founded.
the ninth election, 1820.
monroe and tompkins were re-elected, the vote being substantially unanimous, for the first and last time since washington. the close of this term made the republican rule in the administration 24 years in succession, under three presidents, each once re-elected, and all citizens of virginia.
four new states had been admitted during the previous term, viz.: mississippi, illinois, alabama, and maine, so that 23 states took part in this election.
the tenth election, 1824.
four candidates were in the field for the presidency at this election. missouri having been admitted since the ninth election[383] there were 24 states to vote. the whole number of electors was 261; necessary to a choice, 131.
the candidates and votes were as follows:
andrew jackson 99
john quincy adams 84
wm. h. crawford 41
henry clay 31
by the constitution the house of representatives was required to select the president from the 3 candidates having the highest number of votes. they were to vote by states, and a majority of states would elect. j. q. adams received the vote of 13 states, and was declared elected. john c. calhoun having received 182 electoral votes for the vice-presidency, was thereby elected to that office. 18 of the states appointed the electors by popular vote and 6 appointed them by their legislatures.
the eleventh election, 1828.
andrew jackson was elected president, and john c. calhoun re-elected vice-president.
john quincy adams and richard rush were also candidates for president and vice-president, respectively. the contest was very hot and bitter. jackson received 178, and adams 171 electoral votes. the popular vote was 650,028 for jackson to 512,158 for adams. the number of electors was the same as in the 10th election. the most violent excitement divided the north and the south on the tariff question, which culminated during this term in the “nullification ordinance,” which jackson met with the decision and vigor for which he was distinguished, ending in the submission of the nullifiers. calhoun resigned his office as vice-president, dec. 28th, 1832. he was the leader of the nullifiers.
the twelfth election, 1832.
jackson’s vigorous dealing with nullification was highly approved by the people, and he was re-elected, with martin van buren as vice-president.
[384]
henry clay was the candidate of the whig party for president, and john sergeant for vice-president.
jackson received 682,502 popular, and 219 electoral votes.
clay ” 550,189 ” 49 ”
jackson’s majority 132,313 170
van buren received 189 electoral votes for vice-president. twenty-four states voted at this election.
the thirteenth election, 1836.
van buren was run, by the democrats, for the presidency, and richard m. johnson for the vice-presidency, against wm. h. harrison, hugh l. white, daniel webster, and w. p. mangum. van buren’s vote was 762,149 popular, and 170 electoral. harrison and the others united was 736,736 popular, and 124 electoral. the whole number of electors being 294, the number necessary to a choice was 148. johnson failed by one electoral vote to be elected to the vice-presidency, and the case went to the senate for decision, as directed by the constitution. the remaining electoral votes for vice-president being divided between 3 candidates, johnson was appointed by the senate.
michigan and arkansas having been admitted this year took part in the election, making 26 states.
the fourteenth election, 1840.
the whig party this year concentrated on wm. h. harrison for president, and john tyler for vice-president.
the democrats opposed them with van buren and johnson again. the country had been passing through a financial crisis of extreme severity during the thirteenth presidential term, and this election, involving the decision of a financial policy, was very exciting.
harrison was an ohio farmer, and, the democrats said, “lived in a log cabin and drank hard cider.” the whigs took the hint, built log cabins to hold their campaign gatherings in, drank much hard cider, and sung stirring political songs.
[385]
harrison’s popular vote was 1,274,783 —his electoral vote 234
van buren’s ” 1,128,702 ” 60
majority, 46,081 174
tyler’s vote as vice-president was the same as harrison’s.
harrison died on the 4th of april, one month after his inauguration, and john tyler succeeded to the presidency. his term was made remarkable by his disagreement with the measures of congress, on financial questions.
this was the first time a vice-president had been called on to serve as a substitute for the president. there were 26 states taking part in this election.
the fifteenth election, 1844.
the slavery question entered into this election as a leading point. the republic of texas asked admission into the union. as it would be certain to be a slave state, and many of the people objected to extending that institution while others favored it, the parties took it up; the democrats favoring the admission, the whigs opposing.
james k. polk was the candidate for president, and geo. m. dallas for vice-president, run by the democrats.
the whigs opposed against them henry clay and theodore frelinghuysen.
the vote for polk and dallas was 1,335,834, electoral vote 170
” clay and frelinghuysen 1,297,033, ” 105
polk and dallas’ majority, 38,801 65
this was the third time mr. clay had been defeated as a candidate for the presidency, to the great regret of many, even of those who voted against him.
the war with mexico followed as a consequence of the policy of the united states government, decided upon in this election. texas had formerly been a part of mexico, and that country considered its admission into the union as an act of hostility to herself.
[386]
sixteenth election, 1848.
the whigs were successful in this election, owing to a division in the ranks of the democratic party. the whigs nominated gen. zachary taylor for president, and millard fillmore for vice-president; the democrats lewis cass for president, and wm. o. butler for vice-president; the free soil democrats—who opposed the extension of slavery—martin van buren for president, and charles f. adams for vice-president.
the vote resulted thus:
taylor and fillmore’s popular vote 1,362,024, electoral vote 163
cass and butler’s ” 1,222,419, ” 127
van buren and adams’ ” 291,678.
the third ticket secured no electoral votes.
four new states had been admitted into the union since the 15th election, viz.: texas, florida, iowa, and wisconsin; and 30 states voted this year.
gen. taylor died july 9th, 1850, one year, four months, and four days after his inauguration, and mr. fillmore filled out his term of office.
the seventeenth election, 1852.
during the previous presidential term the subject of slavery, and the strategy of politicians in favor of and against it, absorbed public attention. the repeal of the missouri compromise of 1820 opened the whole question, and a trial of strength as to which side should occupy the new territory, was prepared for. the crisis of preparation had not been reached when this election occurred, and comparatively little interest was taken in it.
the democrats nominated franklin pierce for president, and wm. r. king for vice-president; the whigs chose as their candidates gen. winfield scott for president, and wm. a. graham for vice-president.
pierce and king received, of popular votes 1,590,490, of electoral, 254. scott and graham received, of popular votes,[387] 1,378,589, of electoral, 42. pierce’s majority, on popular vote, 211,901, on electoral, 212.
california had been admitted since the 16th election, and there were 31 states to vote in this.
this was the last election in which the whig party nominated a candidate. the contest in regard to slave and free territory absorbing all the interest of the country, the parties were rearranged, those in favor of slavery, or wishing to leave that institution undisturbed, gathered to the democratic party; while those wishing to actively oppose the extension of slavery to territory not yet occupied by it, united, under the name of the republican party, the whigs becoming extinct, as a party.
the eighteenth election, 1856.
the democrats nominated james buchanan, and john c. breckenridge for president and vice-president; the republicans, john c. fremont and william l. dayton. a third party, in favor of putting only native americans in office, voted for millard fillmore and andrew j. donnelson. the result was the following:
popular vote for buchanan and breckenridge 1,803,029, electoral, 174. popular vote for fremont and dayton 1,342,164, electoral, 114. popular vote for fillmore and donnelson, 874,625, electoral, 8.
buchanan had only what is called a plurality popular vote; the two others united had a majority over him of 413,760 votes. a majority of electoral votes, however, was 149, and he received 174, and a majority of 52 electoral votes over the others united.
only 31 states voted at this election. mr. buchanan was much blamed for not taking more vigorous measures to quench the secession movement that commenced in the last months of his administration. the contrast between his course and jackson’s in 1832 was very marked.
the nineteenth election, 1860.
the republican party nominated abraham lincoln for president, and hannibal hamlin for vice-president. the[388] south, finding it impossible to uphold the slavery extension system against the growing republican party, and the compromise that had protected that system having been laid aside in 1850, must submit to the gradual extinction of slavery, or withdraw from the union. they chose the latter, and favored the division of the democratic party, which was still much the largest, into several parts. three tickets of that party were run, against one in the republican, which assured the election of lincoln.
the northern democrats voted mainly for stephen a. douglas and h. v. johnson; the southern democrats for john c. breckenridge and joseph lane; and those who wished to stop the contest on the slavery question altogether, on both sides, voted for john bell and edward everett. the result was as follows:
the vote for lincoln and hamlin was 1,866,452, electoral 180
” douglas and johnson 1,370,157, ” 72
” breckenridge and lane 847,953, ” 39
” bell and everett 590,631, ” 12
the three divisions of the democrats together had a popular majority of 947,289 over the republicans, but the latter had a majority of 57 electoral votes over all the others united.
two new states had been admitted since the eighteenth election, minnesota and oregon, and there were 33 states voting. the census of 1860 gave the population as 31,148,048. all the votes cast at this election amounted to 4,680,193, the largest number by more than 500,000 that had ever been known. the southern states seceded within a few months, and the civil war began. it was remarkable as the most gigantic war of its kind, perhaps of any kind, known in history; and for the obstinate bravery and resolution displayed on both sides. it continued during this entire presidential term.
the twentieth election, 1864.
the election this year was confined to the states that had remained loyal to the constitution and the union. eleven states had seceded.
[389]
the republicans re-nominated lincoln for president, with andrew johnson for vice-president. the democratic party nominated gen. geo. b. mcclellan for president, and geo. h. pendleton for vice-president. the result was as follows:
the popular vote for lincoln and johnson was 2,223,035
” ” mcclellan and pendleton 1,811,754
lincoln’s popular majority 411,281
electoral votes for lincoln 212
” ” mcclellan 21
lincoln’s electoral majority 191
the total number of popular votes was 4,034,789. lincoln’s vote at this election was the largest that had ever been cast for one candidate, though there were less votes cast by all parties by 600,000 than in the nineteenth election. two new states, kansas and west virginia, had been admitted since the previous election, which with the 11 in rebellion omitted, left 24 states voting.
the civil war closed with the submission of the seceded states to the general government soon after lincoln’s re-inauguration; but he was assassinated about the same time, on the evening of april 13th, 1865, and died on the following day, leaving a nation in mourning, and the civilized world struck with horror. andrew johnson acted as president during the remainder of this term. mr. johnson’s administration was marked by the great difference in the policy of reconstructing the seceded states adopted by him and by the congress, by the limitations which the latter threw around him, and the attempt to impeach him, which failed by a few votes.
the twenty-first election, 1868.
gen. ulysses s. grant was nominated by the republicans for president, and schuyler colfax for vice-president.
the nominees of the democratic party were horatio seymour and francis p. blair.
[390]
grant’s popular majority was 309,588. questions of reconstruction and finance were determined by this election, the people upholding the policy pursued by congress since the close of the war.
the twenty-second election, 1872.
grant was nominated by the republican party for president, and henry wilson for vice-president. the democrats nominated horace greeley for president, and b. gratz brown for vice-president. a second democratic party had a ticket, nominating chas. o’connor and j. q. adams.
grant’s popular majority was 762,991; and he received 218 electoral votes. 30 states gave him majorities, pennsylvania reaching 137,000 majority in his favor. the whole popular vote at this election was 6,431,149. the colored people voted for the first time, under the amendment to the constitution abolishing the distinction in citizenship in regard to color.
the elections are now held on the same day in all the states, by a general law. the number of states voting at the 22d election was thirty-seven. this election set a final seal on the policy of the republican party, leaving the country free to turn its attention to other questions relating to its internal interests.
