“nothing,” says goethe, “is more significant of men’s character than what they find laughable.” the truth of this observation would perhaps have been more apparent if he had said culture instead of character. the last thing in which the cultivated man can have community with the vulgar is their jocularity; and we can hardly exhibit more strikingly the wide gulf which separates him from them, than by comparing the object which shakes the diaphragm of a coal-heaver with the highly complex pleasure derived from a real witticism. that any high order of wit is exceedingly complex, and demands a ripe and strong mental development, has one evidence in the fact that we do not find it in boys at all in proportion to their manifestation of other powers. clever boys generally aspire to the heroic and poetic rather than the comic, and the crudest of all their efforts are their jokes. many a witty man will remember how in his school days a practical joke, more or less rabelaisian, was for him the ne plus ultra of the ludicrous. it seems to have been the same with the boyhood of the human race. the history and literature of the ancient hebrews gives the idea of a people who went about their business and their pleasure as gravely as a society of beavers; the smile and the laugh are often mentioned metaphorically, but the smile is one of complacency, the laugh is one of scorn. nor can we imagine that the facetious element was very strong in the p. 100egyptians; no laughter lurks in the wondering eyes and the broad calm lips of their statues. still less can the assyrians have had any genius for the comic: the round eyes and simpering satisfaction of their ideal faces belong to a type which is not witty, but the cause of wit in others. the fun of these early races was, we fancy, of the after-dinner kind—loud-throated laughter over the wine-cup, taken too little account of in sober moments to enter as an element into their art, and differing as much from the laughter of a chamfort or a sheridan as the gastronomic enjoyment of an ancient briton, whose dinner had no other “removes” than from acorns to beech-mast and back again to acorns, differed from the subtle pleasures of the palate experienced by his turtle-eating descendant. in fact they had to live seriously through the stages which to subsequent races were to become comedy, as those amiable-looking preadamite amphibia which professor owen has restored for us in effigy at sydenham, took perfectly au sérieux the grotesque physiognomies of their kindred. heavy experience in their case, as in every other, was the base from which the salt of future wit was to be made.

humor is of earlier growth than wit, and it is in accordance with this earlier growth that it has more affinity with the poetic tendencies, while wit is more nearly allied to the ratiocinative intellect. humor draws its materials from situations and characteristics; wit seizes on unexpected and complex relations. humor is chiefly representative and descriptive; it is diffuse, and flows along without any other law than its own fantastic will; or it flits about like a will-of-the-wisp, amazing us by its whimsical transitions. wit is brief and sudden, and sharply defined as a crystal; it does not make pictures, it is not fantastic; but it detects an unsuspected analogy or suggests a startling or confounding inference. every one who has had the opportunity of making the comparison will remember that the effect produced on him by some witticisms is closely akin to the effect produced on him by subtle reasoning which lays open a fallacy or absurdity, and there are persons whose delight in p. 101such reasoning always manifests itself in laughter. this affinity of wit with ratiocination is the more obvious in proportion as the species of wit is higher and deals less with less words and with superficialities than with the essential qualities of things. some of johnson’s most admirable witticisms consist in the suggestion of an analogy which immediately exposes the absurdity of an action or proposition; and it is only their ingenuity, condensation, and instantaneousness which lift them from reasoning into wit—they are reasoning raised to a higher power. on the other hand, humor, in its higher forms, and in proportion as it associates itself with the sympathetic emotions, continually passes into poetry: nearly all great modern humorists may be called prose poets.

some confusion as to the nature of humor has been created by the fact that those who have written most eloquently on it have dwelt almost exclusively on its higher forms, and have defined humor in general as the sympathetic presentation of incongruous elements in human nature and life—a definition which only applies to its later development. a great deal of humor may coexist with a great deal of barbarism, as we see in the middle ages; but the strongest flavor of the humor in such cases will come, not from sympathy, but more probably from triumphant egoism or intolerance; at best it will be the love of the ludicrous exhibiting itself in illustrations of successful cunning and of the lex talionis as in reineke fuchs, or shaking off in a holiday mood the yoke of a too exacting faith, as in the old mysteries. again, it is impossible to deny a high degree of humor to many practical jokes, but no sympathetic nature can enjoy them. strange as the genealogy may seem, the original parentage of that wonderful and delicious mixture of fun, fancy, philosophy, and feeling, which constitutes modern humor, was probably the cruel mockery of a savage at the writhings of a suffering enemy—such is the tendency of things toward the good and beautiful on this earth! probably the reason why high culture demands more complete harmony with its moral sympathies in humor than in wit, is p. 102that humor is in its nature more prolix—that it has not the direct and irresistible force of wit. wit is an electric shock, which takes us by violence, quite independently of our predominant mental disposition; but humor approaches us more deliberately and leaves us masters of ourselves. hence it is, that while coarse and cruel humor has almost disappeared from contemporary literature, coarse and cruel wit abounds; even refined men cannot help laughing at a coarse bon mot or a lacerating personality, if the “shock” of the witticism is a powerful one; while mere fun will have no power over them if it jar on their moral taste. hence, too, it is, that while wit is perennial, humor is liable to become superannuated.

as is usual with definitions and classifications, however, this distinction between wit and humor does not exactly represent the actual fact. like all other species, wit and humor overlap and blend with each other. there are bon mots, like many of charles lamb’s, which are a sort of facetious hybrids, we hardly know whether to call them witty or humorous; there are rather lengthy descriptions or narratives, which, like voltaire’s “micromégas,” would be more humorous if they were not so sparkling and antithetic, so pregnant with suggestion and satire, that we are obliged to call them witty. we rarely find wit untempered by humor, or humor without a spice of wit; and sometimes we find them both united in the highest degree in the same mind, as in shakespeare and molière. a happy conjunction this, for wit is apt to be cold, and thin-lipped, and mephistophelean in men who have no relish for humor, whose lungs do never crow like chanticleer at fun and drollery; and broad-faced, rollicking humor needs the refining influence of wit. indeed, it may be said that there is no really fine writing in which wit has not an implicit, if not an explicit, action. the wit may never rise to the surface, it may never flame out into a witticism; but it helps to give brightness and transparency, it warns off from flights and exaggerations which verge on the ridiculous—in every genre of writing it preserves a man from sinking into the genre ennuyeux. and it is eminently p. 103needed for this office in humorous writing; for as humor has no limits imposed on it by its material, no law but its own exuberance, it is apt to become preposterous and wearisome unless checked by wit, which is the enemy of all monotony, of all lengthiness, of all exaggeration.

perhaps the nearest approach nature has given us to a complete analysis, in which wit is as thoroughly exhausted of humor as possible, and humor as bare as possible of wit, is in the typical frenchman and the typical german. voltaire, the intensest example of pure wit, fails in most of his fictions from his lack of humor. “micromégas” is a perfect tale, because, as it deals chiefly with philosophic ideas and does not touch the marrow of human feeling and life, the writer’s wit and wisdom were all-sufficient for his purpose. not so with “candide.” here voltaire had to give pictures of life as well as to convey philosophic truth and satire, and here we feel the want of humor. the sense of the ludicrous is continually defeated by disgust, and the scenes, instead of presenting us with an amusing or agreeable picture, are only the frame for a witticism. on the other hand, german humor generally shows no sense of measure, no instinctive tact; it is either floundering and clumsy as the antics of a leviathan, or laborious and interminable as a lapland day, in which one loses all hope that the stars and quiet will ever come. for this reason, jean paul, the greatest of german humorists, is unendurable to many readers, and frequently tiresome to all. here, as elsewhere, the german shows the absence of that delicate perception, that sensibility to gradation, which is the essence of tact and taste, and the necessary concomitant of wit. all his subtlety is reserved for the region of metaphysics. for identit?t in the abstract no one can have an acuter vision, but in the concrete he is satisfied with a very loose approximation. he has the finest nose for empirismus in philosophical doctrine, but the presence of more or less tobacco smoke in the air he breathes is imperceptible to him. to the typical german—vetter michel—it is indifferent whether his door-lock will catch, whether his teacup be more p. 104or less than an inch thick; whether or not his book have every other leaf unstitched; whether his neighbor’s conversation be more or less of a shout; whether he pronounce b or p, t or d; whether or not his adored one’s teeth be few and far between. he has the same sort of insensibility to gradations in time. a german comedy is like a german sentence: you see no reason in its structure why it should ever come to an end, and you accept the conclusion as an arrangement of providence rather than of the author. we have heard germans use the word langeweile, the equivalent for ennui, and we have secretly wondered what it can be that produces ennui in a german. not the longest of long tragedies, for we have known him to pronounce that h?chst fesselnd (so enchaining!); not the heaviest of heavy books, for he delights in that as gründlich (deep, sir, deep!); not the slowest of journeys in a postwagen, for the slower the horses, the more cigars he can smoke before he reaches his journey’s end. german ennui must be something as superlative as barclay’s treble x, which, we suppose, implies an extremely unknown quantity of stupefaction.

it is easy to see that this national deficiency in nicety of perception must have its effect on the national appreciation and exhibition of humor. you find in germany ardent admirers of shakespeare, who tell you that what they think most admirable in him is his wortspiel, his verbal quibbles; and one of these, a man of no slight culture and refinement, once cited to a friend of ours proteus’s joke in “the two gentlemen of verona”—“nod i? why that’s noddy,” as a transcendant specimen of shakespearian wit. german facetiousness is seldom comic to foreigners, and an englishman with a swelled cheek might take up kladderadatsch, the german punch, without any danger of agitating his facial muscles. indeed, it is a remarkable fact that, among the five great races concerned in modern civilization, the german race is the only one which, up to the present century, had contributed nothing classic to the common stock of european wit and humor; for reineke fuchs cannot be regarded as a peculiarly teutonic p. 105product. italy was the birthplace of pantomime and the immortal pulcinello; spain had produced cervantes; france had produced rabelais and molière, and classic wits innumerable; england had yielded shakspeare and a host of humorists. but germany had borne no great comic dramatist, no great satirist, and she has not yet repaired the omission; she had not even produced any humorist of a high order. among her great writers, lessing is the one who is the most specifically witty. we feel the implicit influence of wit—the “flavor of mind”—throughout his writings; and it is often concentrated into pungent satire, as every reader of the hamburgische dramaturgie remembers. still lessing’s name has not become european through his wit, and his charming comedy, minna von barnhelm, has won no place on a foreign stage. of course we do not pretend to an exhaustive acquaintance with german literature; we not only admit—we are sure that it includes much comic writing of which we know nothing. we simply state the fact, that no german production of that kind, before the present century, ranked as european; a fact which does not, indeed, determine the amount of the national facetiousness, but which is quite decisive as to its quality. whatever may be the stock of fun which germany yields for home consumption, she has provided little for the palate of other lands. all honor to her for the still greater things she has done for us! she has fought the hardest fight for freedom of thought, has produced the grandest inventions, has made magnificent contributions to science, has given us some of the divinest poetry, and quite the divinest music in the world. no one reveres and treasures the products of the german mind more than we do. to say that that mind is not fertile in wit is only like saying that excellent wheat land is not rich pasture; to say that we do not enjoy german facetiousness is no more than to say that, though the horse is the finest of quadrupeds, we do not like him to lay his hoof playfully on our shoulder. still, as we have noticed that the pointless puns and stupid jocularity of the boy may ultimately be developed into the epigrammatic p. 106brilliancy and polished playfulness of the man; as we believe that racy wit and chastened delicate humor are inevitably the results of invigorated and refined mental activity, we can also believe that germany will, one day, yield a crop of wits and humorists.

perhaps there is already an earnest of that future crop in the existence of heinrich heine, a german born with the present century, who, to teutonic imagination, sensibility, and humor, adds an amount of esprit that would make him brilliant among the most brilliant of frenchmen. true, this unique german wit is half a hebrew; but he and his ancestors spent their youth in german air, and were reared on wurst and sauerkraut, so that he is as much a german as a pheasant is an english bird, or a potato an irish vegetable. but whatever else he may be, heine is one of the most remarkable men of this age: no echo, but a real voice, and therefore, like all genuine things in this world, worth studying; a surpassing lyric poet, who has uttered our feelings for us in delicious song; a humorist, who touches leaden folly with the magic wand of his fancy, and transmutes it into the fine gold of art—who sheds his sunny smile on human tears, and makes them a beauteous rainbow on the cloudy background of life; a wit, who holds in his mighty hand the most scorching lightnings of satire; an artist in prose literature, who has shown even more completely than goethe the possibilities of german prose; and—in spite of all charges against him, true as well as false—a lover of freedom, who has spoken wise and brave words on behalf of his fellow-men. he is, moreover, a suffering man, who, with all the highly-wrought sensibility of genius, has to endure terrible physical ills; and as such he calls forth more than an intellectual interest. it is true, alas! that there is a heavy weight in the other scale—that heine’s magnificent powers have often served only to give electric force to the expression of debased feeling, so that his works are no phidian statue of gold, and ivory, and gems, but have not a little brass, and iron, and miry clay mingled with the precious metal. the audacity of his occasional coarseness p. 107and personality is unparalleled in contemporary literature, and has hardly been exceeded by the license of former days. hence, before his volumes are put within the reach of immature minds, there is need of a friendly penknife to exercise a strict censorship. yet, when all coarseness, all scurrility, all mephistophelean contempt for the reverent feelings of other men, is removed, there will be a plenteous remainder of exquisite poetry, of wit, humor, and just thought. it is apparently too often a congenial task to write severe words about the transgressions committed by men of genius, especially when the censor has the advantage of being himself a man of no genius, so that those transgressions seem to him quite gratuitous; he, forsooth, never lacerated any one by his wit, or gave irresistible piquancy to a coarse allusion, and his indignation is not mitigated by any knowledge of the temptation that lies in transcendent power. we are also apt to measure what a gifted man has done by our arbitrary conception of what he might have done, rather than by a comparison of his actual doings with our own or those of other ordinary men. we make ourselves overzealous agents of heaven, and demand that our brother should bring usurious interest for his five talents, forgetting that it is less easy to manage five talents than two. whatever benefit there may be in denouncing the evil, it is after all more edifying, and certainly more cheering, to appreciate the good. hence, in endeavoring to give our readers some account of heine and his works, we shall not dwell lengthily on his failings; we shall not hold the candle up to dusty, vermin-haunted corners, but let the light fall as much as possible on the nobler and more attractive details. our sketch of heine’s life, which has been drawn from various sources, will be free from everything like intrusive gossip, and will derive its coloring chiefly from the autobiographical hints and descriptions scattered through his own writings. those of our readers who happen to know nothing of heine will in this way be making their acquaintance with the writer while they are learning the outline of his career.

p. 108we have said that heine was born with the present century; but this statement is not precise, for we learn that, according to his certificate of baptism, he was born december 12th, 1799. however, as he himself says, the important point is that he was born, and born on the banks of the rhine, at düsseldorf, where his father was a merchant. in his “reisebilder” he gives us some recollections, in his wild poetic way, of the dear old town where he spent his childhood, and of his schoolboy troubles there. we shall quote from these in butterfly fashion, sipping a little nectar here and there, without regard to any strict order:

“i first saw the light on the banks of that lovely stream, where folly grows on the green hills, and in autumn is plucked, pressed, poured into casks, and sent into foreign lands. believe me, i yesterday heard some one utter folly which, in anno 1811, lay in a bunch of grapes i then saw growing on the johannisberg. . . . mon dieu! if i had only such faith in me that i could remove mountains, the johannisberg would be the very mountain i should send for wherever i might be; but as my faith is not so strong, imagination must help me, and it transports me at once to the lovely rhine. . . . i am again a child, and playing with other children on the schlossplatz, at düsseldorf on the rhine. yes, madam, there was i born; and i note this expressly, in case, after my death, seven cities—schilda, kr?hwinkel, polkwitz, bockum, dülken, g?ttingen, and sch?ppenst?dt—should contend for the honor of being my birthplace. düsseldorf is a town on the rhine; sixteen thousand men live there, and many hundred thousand men besides lie buried there. . . . . among them, many of whom my mother says, that it would be better if they were still living; for example, my grandfather and my uncle, the old herr von geldern and the young herr von geldern, both such celebrated doctors, who saved so many men from death, and yet must die themselves. and the pious ursula, who carried me in her arms when i was a child, also lies buried there and a rosebush grows on her grave; she loved the scent of roses so well in life, and her heart was pure rose-incense and goodness. the knowing old canon, too, lies buried there. heavens, what an object he looked when i last saw him! he was made up of nothing but mind and plasters, and nevertheless studied day and night, as if he were alarmed lest the worms should find an idea too little in his head. and the little william lies there, and for this i am to p. 109blame. we were schoolfellows in the franciscan monastery, and were playing on that side of it where the düssel flows between stone walls, and i said, ‘william, fetch out the kitten that has just fallen in’—and merrily he went down on to the plank which lay across the brook, snatched the kitten out of the water, but fell in himself, and was dragged out dripping and dead. the kitten lived to a good old age. . . . princes in that day were not the tormented race as they are now; the crown grew firmly on their heads, and at night they drew a nightcap over it, and slept peacefully, and peacefully slept the people at their feet; and when the people waked in the morning, they said, ‘good morning, father!’ and the princes answered, ‘good morning, dear children!’ but it was suddenly quite otherwise; for when we awoke one morning at düsseldorf, and were ready to say, ‘good morning, father!’ lo! the father was gone away; and in the whole town there was nothing but dumb sorrow, everywhere a sort of funeral disposition; and people glided along silently to the market, and read the long placard placed on the door of the town hall. it was dismal weather; yet the lean tailor, kilian, stood in his nankeen jacket which he usually wore only in the house, and his blue worsted stockings hung down so that his naked legs peeped out mournfully, and his thin lips trembled while he muttered the announcement to himself. and an old soldier read rather louder, and at many a word a crystal tear trickled down to his brave old mustache. i stood near him and wept in company, and asked him, ‘why we wept?’ he answered, ‘the elector has abdicated.’ and then he read again, and at the words, ‘for the long-manifested fidelity of my subjects,’ and ‘hereby set you free from your allegiance,’ he wept more than ever. it is strangely touching to see an old man like that, with faded uniform and scarred face, weep so bitterly all of a sudden. while we were reading, the electoral arms were taken down from the town hall; everything had such a desolate air, that it was as if an eclipse of the sun were expected. . . . i went home and wept, and wailed out, ‘the elector has abdicated!’ in vain my mother took a world of trouble to explain the thing to me. i knew what i knew; i was not to be persuaded, but went crying to bed, and in the night dreamed that the world was at an end.”

the next morning, however, the sun rises as usual, and joachim murat is proclaimed grand duke, whereupon there is a holiday at the public school, and heinrich (or harry, for that was his baptismal name, which he afterward had the p. 110good taste to change), perched on the bronze horse of the electoral statue, sees quite a different scene from yesterday’s:

“the next day the world was again all in order, and we had school as before, and things were got by heart as before—the roman emperors, chronology, the nouns in im, the verba irregularia, greek, hebrew, geography, mental arithmetic!—heavens! my head is still dizzy with it—all must be learned by heart! and a great deal of this came very conveniently for me in after life. for if i had not known the roman kings by heart, it would subsequently have been quite indifferent to me whether niebuhr had proved or had not proved that they never really existed. . . . but oh! the trouble i had at school with the endless dates. and with arithmetic it was still worse. what i understood best was subtraction, for that has a very practical rule: ‘four can’t be taken from three, therefore i must borrow one.’ but i advise every one in such a case to borrow a few extra pence, for no one can tell what may happen. . . . as for latin, you have no idea, madam, what a complicated affair it is. the romans would never have found time to conquer the world if they had first had to learn latin. luckily for them, they already knew in their cradles what nouns have their accusative in im. i, on the contrary, had to learn them by heart in the sweat of my brow; nevertheless, it is fortunate for me that i know them . . . and the fact that i have them at my finger-ends if i should ever happen to want them suddenly, affords me much inward repose and consolation in many troubled hours of life. . . . of greek i will not say a word, i should get too much irritated. the monks in the middle ages were not so far wrong when they maintained that greek was an invention of the devil. god knows the suffering i endured over it. . . . with hebrew it went somewhat better, for i had always a great liking for the jews, though to this very hour they crucify my good name; but i could never get on so far in hebrew as my watch, which had much familiar intercourse with pawnbrokers, and in this way contracted many jewish habits—for example, it wouldn’t go on saturdays.”

heine’s parents were apparently not wealthy, but his education was cared for by his uncle, solomon heine, a great banker in hamburg, so that he had no early pecuniary disadvantages to struggle with. he seems to have been very happy in his mother, who was not of hebrew but of teutonic blood; he often mentions her with reverence and affection, and in the p. 111“buch der lieder” there are two exquisite sonnets addressed to her, which tell how his proud spirit was always subdued by the charm of her presence, and how her love was the home of his heart after restless weary ramblings:

“wie m?chtig auch mein stolzer muth sich bl?he,

in deiner selig süssen, trauten nahe

ergreift mich oft ein demuthvolles zagen.

* * * * *

und immer irrte ich nach liebe, immer

nach liebe, doch die liebe fand ich nimmer,

und kehrte um nach hause, krank und trübe.

doch da bist du entgegen mir gekommen,

und ach! was da in deinem aug’ geschwommen,

das war die süsse, langgesuchte liebe.”

he was at first destined for a mercantile life, but nature declared too strongly against this plan. “god knows,” he has lately said in conversation with his brother, “i would willingly have become a banker, but i could never bring myself to that pass. i very early discerned that bankers would one day be the rulers of the world.” so commerce was at length given up for law, the study of which he began in 1819 at the university of bonn. he had already published some poems in the corner of a newspaper, and among them was one on napoleon, the object of his youthful enthusiasm. this poem, he says in a letter to st. réné taillandier, was written when he was only sixteen. it is still to be found in the “buch der lieder” under the title “die grenadiere,” and it proves that even in its earliest efforts his genius showed a strongly specific character.

it will be easily imagined that the germs of poetry sprouted too vigorously in heine’s brain for jurisprudence to find much room there. lectures on history and literature, we are told, were more diligently attended than lectures on law. he had taken care, too, to furnish his trunk with abundant editions of the poets, and the poet he especially studied at that time was byron. at a later period, we find his taste taking another direction, for he writes, “of all authors, byron is precisely p. 112the one who excites in me the most intolerable emotion; whereas scott, in every one of his works, gladdens my heart, soothes, and invigorates me.” another indication of his bent in these bonn days was a newspaper essay, in which he attacked the romantic school; and here also he went through that chicken-pox of authorship—the production of a tragedy. heine’s tragedy—almansor—is, as might be expected, better than the majority of these youthful mistakes. the tragic collision lies in the conflict between natural affection and the deadly hatred of religion and of race—in the sacrifice of youthful lovers to the strife between moor and spaniard, moslem and christian. some of the situations are striking, and there are passages of considerable poetic merit; but the characters are little more than shadowy vehicles for the poetry, and there is a want of clearness and probability in the structure. it was published two years later, in company with another tragedy, in one act, called william ratcliffe, in which there is rather a feeble use of the scotch second-sight after the manner of the fate in the greek tragedy. we smile to find heine saying of his tragedies, in a letter to a friend soon after their publication: “i know they will be terribly cut up, but i will confess to you in confidence that they are very good, better than my collection of poems, which are not worth a shot.” elsewhere he tells us, that when, after one of paganini’s concerts, he was passionately complimenting the great master on his violin-playing. paganini interrupted him thus: “but how were you pleased with my bows?”

in 1820 heine left bonn for g?ttingen. he there pursued his omission of law studies, and at the end of three months he was rusticated for a breach of the laws against duelling. while there, he had attempted a negotiation with brockhaus for the printing of a volume of poems, and had endured the first ordeal of lovers and poets—a refusal. it was not until a year after that he found a berlin publisher for his first volume of poems, subsequently transformed, with additions, into the “buch der lieder.” he remained between two and three p. 113years at berlin, and the society he found there seems to have made these years an important epoch in his culture. he was one of the youngest members of a circle which assembled at the house of the poetess elise von hohenhausen, the translator of byron—a circle which included chamisso, varnhagen, and rahel (varnhagen’s wife). for rahel, heine had a profound admiration and regard; he afterward dedicated to her the poems included under the tide “heimkehr;” and he frequently refers to her or quotes her in a way that indicates how he valued her influence. according to his friend f. von hohenhausen, the opinions concerning heine’s talent were very various among his berlin friends, and it was only a small minority that had any presentiment of his future fame. in this minority was elise von hohenhausen, who proclaimed heine as the byron of germany; but her opinion was met with much head-shaking and opposition. we can imagine how precious was such a recognition as hers to the young poet, then only two or three and twenty, and with by no means an impressive personality for superficial eyes. perhaps even the deep-sighted were far from detecting in that small, blonde, pale young man, with quiet, gentle manners, the latent powers of ridicule and sarcasm—the terrible talons that were one day to be thrust out from the velvet paw of the young leopard.

it was apparently during this residence in berlin that heine united himself with the lutheran church. he would willingly, like many of his friends, he tells us, have remained free from all ecclesiastical ties if the authorities there had not forbidden residence in prussia, and especially in berlin, to every one who did not belong to one of the positive religions recognized by the state.

“as henry iv. once laughingly said, ‘paris vaut bien une messe,’ so i might with reason say, ‘berlin vaut bien une prêche;’ and i could afterward, as before, accommodate myself to the very enlightened christianity, filtrated from all superstition, which could then be had in the churches of berlin, and which was even free from the divinity of christ, like turtle-soup without turtle.”

p. 114at the same period, too, heine became acquainted with hegel. in his lately published “gest?ndnisse” (confessions) he throws on hegel’s influence over him the blue light of demoniacal wit, and confounds us by the most bewildering double-edged sarcasms; but that influence seems to have been at least more wholesome than the one which produced the mocking retractations of the “gest?ndnisse.” through all his self-satire, we discern that in those days he had something like real earnestness and enthusiasm, which are certainly not apparent in his present theistic confession of faith.

“on the whole, i never felt a strong enthusiasm for this philosophy, and conviction on the subject was out of question. i never was an abstract thinker, and i accepted the synthesis of the hegelian doctrine without demanding any proof; since its consequences flattered my vanity. i was young and proud, and it pleased my vainglory when i learned from hegel that the true god was not, as my grandmother believed, the god who lives in heaven, but myself here upon earth. this foolish pride had not in the least a pernicious influence on my feelings; on the contrary, it heightened these to the pitch of heroism. i was at that time so lavish in generosity and self-sacrifice that i must assuredly have eclipsed the most brilliant deeds of those good bourgeois of virtue who acted merely from a sense of duty, and simply obeyed the laws of morality.”

his sketch of hegel is irresistibly amusing; but we must warn the reader that heine’s anecdotes are often mere devices of style by which he conveys his satire or opinions. the reader will see that he does not neglect an opportunity of giving a sarcastic lash or two, in passing, to meyerbeer, for whose music he has a great contempt. the sarcasm conveyed in the substitution of reputation for music and journalists for musicians, might perhaps escape any one unfamiliar with the sly and unexpected turns of heine’s ridicule.

“to speak frankly, i seldom understood him, and only arrived at the meaning of his words by subsequent reflection. i believe he wished not to be understood; and hence his practice of sprinkling his discourse with modifying parentheses; hence, perhaps, his preference for persons of whom he knew that they did not understand p. 115him, and to whom he all the more willingly granted the honor of his familiar acquaintance. thus every one in berlin wondered at the intimate companionship of the profound hegel with the late heinrich beer, a brother of giacomo meyerbeer, who is universally known by his reputation, and who has been celebrated by the cleverest journalists. this beer, namely heinrich, was a thoroughly stupid fellow, and indeed was afterward actually declared imbecile by his family, and placed under guardianship, because instead of making a name for himself in art or in science by means of his great fortune, he squandered his money on childish trifles; and, for example, one day bought six thousand thalers’ worth of walking-sticks. this poor man, who had no wish to pass either for a great tragic dramatist, or for a great star-gazer, or for a laurel-crowned musical genius, a rival of mozart and rossini, and preferred giving his money for walking-sticks—this degenerate beer enjoyed hegel’s most confidential society; he was the philosopher’s bosom friend, his pylades, and accompanied him everywhere like his shadow. the equally witty and gifted felix mendelssohn once sought to explain this phenomenon, by maintaining that hegel did not understand heinrich beer. i now believe, however, that the real ground of that intimacy consisted in this—hegel was convinced that no word of what he said was understood by heinrich beer; and he could therefore, in his presence, give himself up to all the intellectual outpourings of the moment. in general, hegel’s conversation was a sort of monologue, sighed forth by starts in a noiseless voice; the odd roughness of his expressions often struck me, and many of them have remained in my memory. one beautiful starlight evening we stood together at the window, and i, a young man of one-and-twenty, having just had a good dinner and finished my coffee, spoke with enthusiasm of the stars, and called them the habitations of the departed. but the master muttered to himself, ‘the stars! hum! hum! the stars are only a brilliant leprosy on the face of the heavens.’ ‘for god’s sake,’ i cried, ‘is there, then, no happy place above, where virtue is rewarded after death?’ but he, staring at me with his pale eyes, said, cuttingly, ‘so you want a bonus for having taken care of your sick mother, and refrained from poisoning your worthy brother?’ at these words he looked anxiously round, but appeared immediately set at rest when he observed that it was only heinrich beer, who had approached to invite him to a game at whist.”

in 1823 heine returned to g?ttingen to complete his career as a law-student, and this time he gave evidence of advanced p. 116mental maturity, not only by producing many of the charming poems subsequently included in the “reisebilder,” but also by prosecuting his professional studies diligently enough to leave g?ttingen, in 1825, as doctor juris. hereupon he settled at hamburg as an advocate, but his profession seems to have been the least pressing of his occupations. in those days a small blonde young man, with the brim of his hat drawn over his nose, his coat flying open, and his hands stuck in his trousers pockets, might be seen stumbling along the streets of hamburg, staring from side to side, and appearing to have small regard to the figure he made in the eyes of the good citizens. occasionally an inhabitant more literary than usual would point out this young man to his companion as heinrich heine; but in general the young poet had not to endure the inconveniences of being a lion. his poems were devoured, but he was not asked to devour flattery in return. whether because the fair hamburgers acted in the spirit of johnson’s advice to hannah more—to “consider what her flattery was worth before she choked him with it”—or for some other reason, heine, according to the testimony of august lewald, to whom we owe these particulars of his hamburg life, was left free from the persecution of tea-parties. not, however, from another persecution of genius—nervous headaches, which some persons, we are told, regarded as an improbable fiction, intended as a pretext for raising a delicate white hand to his forehead. it is probable that the sceptical persons alluded to were themselves untroubled with nervous headaches, and that their hands were not delicate. slight details, these, but worth telling about a man of genius, because they help us to keep in mind that he is, after all, our brother, having to endure the petty every-day ills of life as we have; with this difference, that his heightened sensibility converts what are mere insect stings for us into scorpion stings for him.

it was, perhaps, in these hamburg days that heine paid the visit to goethe, of which he gives us this charming little picture:

p. 117“when i visited him in weimar, and stood before him, i involuntarily glanced at his side to see whether the eagle was not there with the lightning in his beak. i was nearly speaking greek to him; but, as i observed that he understood german, i stated to him in german that the plums on the road between jena and weimar were very good. i had for so many long winter nights thought over what lofty and profound things i would say to goethe, if ever i saw him. and when i saw him at last, i said to him, that the saxon plums were very good! and goethe smiled.”

during the next few years heine produced the most popular of all his works—those which have won him his place as the greatest of living german poets and humorists. between 1826 and 1829 appeared the four volumes of the “reisebilder” (pictures of travel) and the “buch der lieder” (book of songs), a volume of lyrics, of which it is hard to say whether their greatest charm is the lightness and finish of their style, their vivid and original imaginativeness, or their simple, pure sensibility. in his “reisebilder” heine carries us with him to the hartz, to the isle of norderney, to his native town düsseldorf, to italy, and to england, sketching scenery and character, now with the wildest, most fantastic humor, now with the finest idyllic sensibility—letting his thoughts wander from poetry to politics, from criticism to dreamy reverie, and blending fun, imagination, reflection, and satire in a sort of exquisite, ever-varying shimmer, like the hues of the opal.

heine’s journey to england did not at all heighten his regard for the english. he calls our language the “hiss of egoism (zischlaute des egoismus); and his ridicule of english awkwardness is as merciless as—english ridicule of german awkwardness. his antipathy toward us seems to have grown in intensity, like many of his other antipathies; and in his “vermischte schriften” he is more bitter than ever. let us quote one of his philippics, since bitters are understood to be wholesome:

“it is certainly a frightful injustice to pronounce sentence of condemnation on an entire people. but with regard to the english, momentary disgust might betray me into this injustice; and on p. 118looking at the mass i easily forget the many brave and noble men who distinguished themselves by intellect and love of freedom. but these, especially the british poets, were always all the more glaringly in contrast with the rest of the nation; they were isolated martyrs to their national relations; and, besides, great geniuses do not belong to the particular land of their birth: they scarcely belong to this earth, the golgotha of their sufferings. the mass—the english blockheads, god forgive me!—are hateful to me in my inmost soul; and i often regard them not at all as my fellow-men, but as miserable automata—machines, whose motive power is egoism. in these moods, it seems to me as if i heard the whizzing wheelwork by which they think, feel, reckon, digest, and pray: their praying, their mechanical anglican church-going, with the gilt prayer-book under their arms, their stupid, tiresome sunday, their awkward piety, is most of all odious to me. i am firmly convinced that a blaspheming frenchman is a more pleasing sight for the divinity than a praying englishman.”

on his return from england heine was employed at munich in editing the allgemeinen politischen annalen, but in 1830 he was again in the north, and the news of the july revolution surprised him on the island of heligoland. he has given us a graphic picture of his democratic enthusiasm in those days in some letters, apparently written from heligoland, which he has inserted in his book on b?rne. we quote some passages, not only for their biographic interest as showing a phase of heine’s mental history, but because they are a specimen of his power in that kind of dithyrambic writing which, in less masterly hands, easily becomes ridiculous:

“the thick packet of newspapers arrived from the continent with these warm, glowing-hot tidings. they were sunbeams wrapped up in packing-paper, and they inflamed my soul till it burst into the wildest conflagration. . . . it is all like a dream to me; especially the name lafayette sounds to me like a legend out of my earliest childhood. does he really sit again on horseback, commanding the national guard? i almost fear it may not be true, for it is in print. i will myself go to paris, to be convinced of it with my bodily eyes. . . . it must be splendid, when he rides through the street, the citizen of two worlds, the godlike old man, with his silver locks streaming down his sacred shoulder. . . . he greets, p. 119with his dear old eyes, the grandchildren of those who once fought with him for freedom and equality. . . . it is now sixty years since he returned from america with the declaration of human rights, the decalogue of the world’s new creed, which was revealed to him amid the thunders and lightnings of cannon. . . . and the tricolored flag waves again on the towers of paris, and its streets resound with the marseillaise! . . . it is all over with my yearning for repose. i now know again what i will do, what i ought to do, what i must do. . . . i am the son of the revolution, and seize again the hallowed weapons on which my mother pronounced her magic benediction. . . . flowers! flowers! i will crown my head for the death-fight. and the lyre too, reach me the lyre, that i may sing a battle-song. . . . words like flaming stars, that shoot down from the heavens, and burn up the palaces, and illuminate the huts. . . . words like bright javelins, that whirr up to the seventh heaven and strike the pious hypocrites who have skulked into the holy of holies. . . . i am all joy and song, all sword and flame! perhaps, too, all delirium. . . . one of those sunbeams wrapped in brown paper has flown to my brain, and set my thoughts aglow. in vain i dip my head into the sea. no water extinguishes this greek fire: . . . even the poor heligolanders shout for joy, although they have only a sort of dim instinct of what has occurred. the fisherman who yesterday took me over to the little sand island, which is the bathing-place here, said to me smilingly, ‘the poor people have won!’ yes; instinctively the people comprehend such events, perhaps, better than we, with all our means of knowledge. thus frau von varnhagen once told me that when the issue of the battle of leipzig was not yet known, the maid-servant suddenly rushed into the room with the sorrowful cry, ‘the nobles have won!’ . . . this morning another packet of newspapers is come, i devour them like manna. child that i am, affecting details touch me yet more than the momentous whole. oh, if i could but see the dog medor. . . . the dog medor brought his master his gun and cartridge-box, and when his master fell, and was buried with his fellow-heroes in the court of the louvre, there stayed the poor dog like a monument of faithfulness, sitting motionless on the grave, day and night, eating but little of the food that was offered him—burying the greater part of it in the earth, perhaps as nourishment for his buried master!”

the enthusiasm which was kept thus at boiling heat by imagination, cooled down rapidly when brought into contact p. 120with reality. in the same book he indicates, in his caustic way, the commencement of that change in his political temperature—for it cannot be called a change in opinion—which has drawn down on him immense vituperation from some of the patriotic party, but which seems to have resulted simply from the essential antagonism between keen wit and fanaticism.

“on the very first days of my arrival in paris i observed that things wore, in reality, quite different colors from those which had been shed on them, when in perspective, by the light of my enthusiasm. the silver locks which i saw fluttering so majestically on the shoulders of lafayette, the hero of two worlds, were metamorphosed into a brown perruque, which made a pitiable covering for a narrow skull. and even the dog medor, which i visited in the court of the louvre, and which, encamped under tricolored flags and trophies, very quietly allowed himself to be fed—he was not at all the right dog, but quite an ordinary brute, who assumed to himself merits not his own, as often happens with the french; and, like many others, he made a profit out of the glory of the revolution. . . . he was pampered and patronized, perhaps promoted to the highest posts, while the true medor, some days after the battle, modestly slunk out of sight, like the true people who created the revolution.”

that it was not merely interest in french politics which sent heine to paris in 1831, but also a perception that german air was not friendly to sympathizers in july revolutions, is humorously intimated in the “gest?ndnisse.”

“i had done much and suffered much, and when the sun of the july revolution arose in france, i had become very weary, and needed some recreation. also, my native air was every day more unhealthy for me, and it was time i should seriously think of a change of climate. i had visions: the clouds terrified me, and made all sorts of ugly faces at me. it often seemed to me as if the sun were a prussian cockade; at night i dreamed of a hideous black eagle, which gnawed my liver; and i was very melancholy. add to this, i had become acquainted with an old berlin justizrath, who had spent many years in the fortress of spandau, and he related to me how unpleasant it is when one is obliged to wear irons in winter. for myself i thought it very unchristian that the irons were not warmed a trifle. if the irons were warmed a little for us they would not make p. 121so unpleasant an impression, and even chilly natures might then bear them very well; it would be only proper consideration, too, if the fetters were perfumed with essence of roses and laurels, as is the case in this country (france). i asked my justizrath whether he often got oysters to eat at spandau? he said, no; spandau was too far from the sea. moreover, he said meat was very scarce there, and there was no kind of volaille except flies, which fell into one’s soup. . . . now, as i really needed some recreation, and as spandau is too far from the sea for oysters to be got there, and the spandau fly-soup did not seem very appetizing to me, as, besides all this, the prussian chains are very cold in winter, and could not be conducive to my health, i resolved to visit paris.”

since this time paris has been heine’s home, and his best prose works have been written either to inform the germans on french affairs or to inform the french on german philosophy and literature. he became a correspondent of the allgemeine zeitung, and his correspondence, which extends, with an interruption of several years, from 1831 to 1844, forms the volume entitled “franz?sische zust?nde” (french affairs), and the second and third volume of his “vermischte schriften.” it is a witty and often wise commentary on public men and public events: louis philippe, casimir périer, thiers, guizot, rothschild, the catholic party, the socialist party, have their turn of satire and appreciation, for heine deals out both with an impartiality which made his less favorable critics—b?rne, for example—charge him with the rather incompatible sins of reckless caprice and venality. literature and art alternate with politics: we have now a sketch of george sand or a description of one of horace vernet’s pictures; now a criticism of victor hugo or of liszt; now an irresistible caricature of spontini or kalkbrenner; and occasionally the predominant satire is relieved by a fine saying or a genial word of admiration. and all is done with that airy lightness, yet precision of touch, which distinguishes heine beyond any living writer. the charge of venality was loudly made against heine in germany: first, it was said that he was paid to write; then, that he was paid to abstain from writing; p. 122and the accusations were supposed to have an irrefragable basis in the fact that he accepted a stipend from the french government. he has never attempted to conceal the reception of that stipend, and we think his statement (in the “vermischte schriften”) of the circumstances under which it was offered and received, is a sufficient vindication of himself and m. guizot from any dishonor in the matter.

it may be readily imagined that heine, with so large a share of the gallic element as he has in his composition, was soon at his ease in parisian society, and the years here were bright with intellectual activity and social enjoyment. “his wit,” wrote august lewald, “is a perpetual gushing fountain; he throws off the most delicious descriptions with amazing facility, and sketches the most comic characters in conversations.” such a man could not be neglected in paris, and heine was sought on all sides—as a guest in distinguished salons, as a possible proselyte in the circle of the saint simonians. his literary productiveness seems to have been furthered by his congenial life, which, however, was soon to some extent embittered by the sense of exile; for since 1835 both his works and his person have been the object of denunciation by the german governments. between 1833 and 1845 appeared the four volumes of the “salon,” “die romantische schule” (both written, in the first instance, in french), the book on b?rne, “atta troll,” a romantic poem, “deutschland,” an exquisitely humorous poem, describing his last visit to germany, and containing some grand passages of serious writing; and the “neue gedichte,” a collection of lyrical poems. among the most interesting of his prose works are the second volume of the “salon,” which contains a survey of religion and philosophy in germany, and the “romantische schule,” a delightful introduction to that phase of german literature known as the romantic school. the book on b?rne, which appeared in 1840, two years after the death of that writer, excited great indignation in germany, as a wreaking of vengeance on the dead, an insult to the memory of a man who p. 123had worked and suffered in the cause of freedom—a cause which was heine’s own. b?rne, we may observe parenthetically for the information of those who are not familiar with recent german literature, was a remarkable political writer of the ultra-liberal party in germany, who resided in paris at the same time with heine: a man of stern, uncompromising partisanship and bitter humor. without justifying heine’s production of this book, we see excuses for him which should temper the condemnation passed on it. there was a radical opposition of nature between him and b?rne; to use his own distinction, heine is a hellene—sensuous, realistic, exquisitely alive to the beautiful; while b?rne was a nazarene—ascetic, spiritualistic, despising the pure artist as destitute of earnestness. heine has too keen a perception of practical absurdities and damaging exaggerations ever to become a thoroughgoing partisan; and with a love of freedom, a faith in the ultimate triumph of democratic principles, of which we see no just reason to doubt the genuineness and consistency, he has been unable to satisfy more zealous and one-sided liberals by giving his adhesion to their views and measures, or by adopting a denunciatory tone against those in the opposite ranks. b?rne could not forgive what he regarded as heine’s epicurean indifference and artistic dalliance, and he at length gave vent to his antipathy in savage attacks on him through the press, accusing him of utterly lacking character and principle, and even of writing under the influence of venal motives. to these attacks heine remained absolutely mute—from contempt according to his own account; but the retort, which he resolutely refrained from making during b?rne’s life, comes in this volume published after his death with the concentrated force of long-gathering thunder. the utterly inexcusable part of the book is the caricature of b?rne’s friend, madame wohl, and the scurrilous insinuations concerning b?rne’s domestic life. it is said, we know not with how much truth, that heine had to answer for these in a duel with madame wohl’s husband, and that, after receiving a serious wound, he promised p. 124to withdraw the offensive matter from a future edition. that edition, however, has not been called for. whatever else we may think of the book, it is impossible to deny its transcendent talent—the dramatic vigor with which b?rne is made present to us, the critical acumen with which he is characterized, and the wonderful play of wit, pathos, and thought which runs through the whole. but we will let heine speak for himself, and first we will give part of his graphic description of the way in which b?rne’s mind and manners grated on his taste:

“to the disgust which, in intercourse with b?rne, i was in danger of feeling toward those who surrounded him, was added the annoyance i felt from his perpetual talk about politics. nothing but political argument, and again political argument, even at table, where he managed to hunt me out. at dinner, when i so gladly forget all the vexations of the world, he spoiled the best dishes for me by his patriotic gall, which he poured as a bitter sauce over everything. calf’s feet, à la ma?tre d’h?tel, then my innocent bonne bouche, he completely spoiled for me by job’s tidings from germany, which he scraped together out of the most unreliable newspapers. and then his accursed remarks, which spoiled one’s appetite! . . . this was a sort of table-talk which did not greatly exhilarate me, and i avenged myself by affecting an excessive, almost impassioned indifference for the object of b?rne’s enthusiasm. for example, b?rne was indignant that immediately on my arrival in paris i had nothing better to do than to write for german papers a long account of the exhibition of pictures. i omit all discussion as to whether that interest in art which induced me to undertake this work was so utterly irreconcilable with the revolutionary interests of the day; but b?rne saw in it a proof of my indifference toward the sacred cause of humanity, and i could in my turn spoil the taste of his patriotic sauerkraut for him by talking all dinner-time of nothing but pictures, of robert’s ‘reapers,’ horace vernet’s ‘judith,’ and scheffer’s ‘faust.’ . . . that i never thought it worth while to discuss my political principles with him it is needless to say; and once when he declared that he had found a contradiction in my writings, i satisfied myself with the ironical answer, ‘you are mistaken, mon cher; such contradictions never occur in my works, for always before i begin to write, i read over the statement of my political principles in my previous writings, that i may not contradict myself, and that no one may be able to reproach me with apostasy from my liberal principles.’”

p. 125and here is his own account of the spirit in which the book was written:

“i was never b?rne’s friend, nor was i ever his enemy. the displeasure which he could often excite in me was never very important, and he atoned for it sufficiently by the cold silence which i opposed to all his accusations and raillery. while he lived i wrote not a line against him, i never thought about him, i ignored him completely; and that enraged him beyond measure. if i now speak of him, i do so neither out of enthusiasm nor out of uneasiness; i am conscious of the coolest impartiality. i write here neither an apology nor a critique, and as in painting the man i go on my own observation, the image i present of him ought perhaps to be regarded as a real portrait. and such a monument is due to him—to the great wrestler who, in the arena of our political games, wrestled so courageously, and earned, if not the laurel, certainly the crown of oak leaves. i give an image with his true features, without idealization—the more like him the more honorable for his memory. he was neither a genius nor a hero; he was no olympian god. he was a man, a denizen of this earth; he was a good writer and a great patriot. . . . beautiful, delicious peace, which i feel at this moment in the depths of my soul! thou rewardest me sufficiently for everything i have done and for everything i have despised. . . . i shall defend myself neither from the reproach of indifference nor from the suspicion of venality. i have for years, during the life of the insinuator, held such self-justification unworthy of me; now even decency demands silence. that would be a frightful spectacle!—polemics between death and exile! dost thou stretch out to me a beseeching hand from the grave? without rancor i reach mine toward thee. . . . see how noble it is and pure! it was never soiled by pressing the hands of the mob, any more than by the impure gold of the people’s enemy. in reality thou hast never injured me. . . . in all thy insinuations there is not a louis d’or’s worth of truth.”

in one of these years heine was married, and, in deference to the sentiments of his wife, married according to the rites of the catholic church. on this fact busy rumor afterward founded the story of his conversion to catholicism, and could of course name the day and spot on which he abjured protestanism. in his “gest?ndnisse” heine publishes a denial of this rumor; less, he says, for the sake of depriving the catholics p. 126of the solace they may derive from their belief in a new convert, than in order to cut off from another party the more spiteful satisfaction of bewailing his instability:

“that statement of time and place was entirely correct. i was actually on the specified day in the specified church, which was, moreover, a jesuit church, namely, st. sulpice; and i then went through a religious act. but this act was no odious abjuration, but a very innocent conjugation; that is to say, my marriage, already performed, according to the civil law there received the ecclesiastical consecration, because my wife, whose family are staunch catholics, would not have thought her marriage sacred enough without such a ceremony. and i would on no account cause this beloved being any uneasiness or disturbance in her religious views.”

for sixteen years—from 1831 to 1847—heine lived that rapid concentrated life which is known only in paris; but then, alas! stole on the “days of darkness,” and they were to be many. in 1847 he felt the approach of the terrible spinal disease which has for seven years chained him to his bed in acute suffering. the last time he went out of doors, he tells us, was in may, 1848:

“with difficulty i dragged myself to the louvre, and i almost sank down as i entered the magnificent hall where the ever-blessed goddess of beauty, our beloved lady of milo, stands on her pedestal. at her feet i lay long, and wept so bitterly that a stone must have pitied me. the goddess looked compassionately on me, but at the same time disconsolately, as if she would say, dost thou not see, then, that i have no arms, and thus cannot help thee?”

since 1848, then, this poet, whom the lovely objects of nature have always “haunted like a passion,” has not descended from the second story of a parisian house; this man of hungry intellect has been shut out from all direct observation of life, all contact with society, except such as is derived from visitors to his sick-room. the terrible nervous disease has affected his eyes; the sight of one is utterly gone, and he can only raise the lid of the other by lifting it with his finger. opium alone is the beneficent genius that stills his pain. we hardly know p. 127whether to call it an alleviation or an intensification of the torture that heine retains his mental vigor, his poetic imagination, and his incisive wit; for if this intellectual activity fills up a blank, it widens the sphere of suffering. his brother described him in 1851 as still, in moments when the hand of pain was not too heavy on him, the same heinrich heine, poet and satirist by turns. in such moments he would narrate the strangest things in the gravest manner. but when he came to an end, he would roguishly lift up the lid of his right eye with his finger to see the impression he had produced; and if his audience had been listening with a serious face, he would break into homeric laughter. we have other proof than personal testimony that heine’s disease allows his genius to retain much of its energy, in the “romanzero,” a volume of poems published in 1851, and written chiefly during the three first years of his illness; and in the first volume of the “vermischte schriften,” also the product of recent years. very plaintive is the poet’s own description of his condition, in the epilogue to the “romanzero:”

“do i really exist? my body is so shrunken that i am hardly anything but a voice; and my bed reminds me of the singing grave of the magician merlin, which lies in the forest of brozeliand, in brittany, under tall oaks whose tops soar like green flames toward heaven. alas! i envy thee those trees and the fresh breeze that moves their branches, brother merlin, for no green leaf rustles about my mattress-grave in paris, where early and late i hear nothing but the rolling of vehicles, hammering, quarrelling, and piano-strumming. a grave without repose, death without the privileges of the dead, who have no debts to pay, and need write neither letters nor books—that is a piteous condition. long ago the measure has been taken for my coffin and for my necrology, but i die so slowly that the process is tedious for me as well as my friends. but patience: everything has an end. you will one day find the booth closed where the puppet-show of my humor has so often delighted you.”

as early as 1850 it was rumored that since heine’s illness a change had taken place in his religious views; and as rumor seldom stops short of extremes, it was soon said that he had p. 128become a thorough pietist, catholics and protestants by turns claiming him as a convert. such a change in so uncompromising an iconoclast, in a man who had been so zealous in his negations as heine, naturally excited considerable sensation in the camp he was supposed to have quitted, as well as in that he was supposed to have joined. in the second volume of the “salon,” and in the “romantische schule,” written in 1834 and ’35, the doctrine of pantheism is dwelt on with a fervor and unmixed seriousness which show that pantheism was then an animating faith to heine, and he attacks what he considers the false spiritualism and asceticism of christianity as the enemy of true beauty in art, and of social well-being. now, however, it was said that heine had recanted all his heresies; but from the fact that visitors to his sick-room brought away very various impressions as to his actual religious views, it seemed probable that his love of mystification had found a tempting opportunity for exercise on this subject, and that, as one of his friends said, he was not inclined to pour out unmixed wine to those who asked for a sample out of mere curiosity. at length, in the epilogue to the “romanzero,” dated 1851, there appeared, amid much mystifying banter, a declaration that he had embraced theism and the belief in a future life, and what chiefly lent an air of seriousness and reliability to this affirmation was the fact that he took care to accompany it with certain negations:

“as concerns myself, i can boast of no particular progress in politics; i adhered (after 1848) to the same democratic principles which had the homage of my youth, and for which i have ever since glowed with increasing fervor. in theology, on the contrary, i must accuse myself of retrogression, since, as i have already confessed, i returned to the old superstition—to a personal god. this fact is, once for all, not to be stifled, as many enlightened and well-meaning friends would fain have had it. but i must expressly contradict the report that my retrograde movement has carried me as far as to the threshold of a church, and that i have even been received into her lap. no: my religious convictions and views have remained free from any tincture of ecclesiasticism; no chiming of bells has allured me, no p. 129altar candles have dazzled me. i have dallied with no dogmas, and have not utterly renounced my reason.”

this sounds like a serious statement. but what shall we say to a convert who plays with his newly-acquired belief in a future life, as heine does in the very next page? he says to his reader:

“console thyself; we shall meet again in a better world, where i also mean to write thee better books. i take for granted that my health will there be improved, and that swedenborg has not deceived me. he relates, namely, with great confidence, that we shall peacefully carry on our old occupations in the other world, just as we have done in this; that we shall there preserve our individuality unaltered, and that death will produce no particular change in our organic development. swedenborg is a thoroughly honorable fellow, and quite worthy of credit in what he tells us about the other world, where he saw with his own eyes the persons who had played a great part on our earth. most of them, he says, remained unchanged, and busied themselves with the same things as formerly; they remained stationary, were old-fashioned, rococo—which now and then produced a ludicrous effect. for example, our dear dr. martin luther kept fast by his doctrine of grace, about which he had for three hundred years daily written down the same mouldy arguments—just in the same way as the late baron ekstein, who during twenty years printed in the allgemeine zeitung one and the same article, perpetually chewing over again the old cud of jesuitical doctrine. but, as we have said, all persons who once figured here below were not found by swedenborg in such a state of fossil immutability: many had considerably developed their character, both for good and evil, in the other world; and this gave rise to some singular results. some who had been heroes and saints on earth had there sunk into scamps and good-for-nothings; and there were examples, too, of a contrary transformation. for instance, the fumes of self-conceit mounted to saint anthony’s head when he learned what immense veneration and adoration had been paid to him by all christendom; and he who here below withstood the most terrible temptations was now quite an impertinent rascal and dissolute gallows-bird, who vied with his pig in rolling himself in the mud. the chaste susanna, from having been excessively vain of her virtue, which she thought indomitable, came to a shameful fall, and she who once so gloriously resisted the two old men, was a victim to the seductions of the young absalom, the son of david. on the contrary, lot’s daughters had in the lapse of time become p. 130very virtuous, and passed in the other world for models of propriety: the old man, alas! had stuck to the wine-flask.”

in his “gest?ndnisse,” the retractation of former opinions and profession of theism are renewed, but in a strain of irony that repels our sympathy and baffles our psychology. yet what strange, deep pathos is mingled with the audacity of the following passage!

“what avails it me, that enthusiastic youths and maidens crown my marble bust with laurel, when the withered hands of an aged nurse are pressing spanish flies behind my ears? what avails it me, that all the roses of shiraz glow and waft incense for me? alas! shiraz is two thousand miles from the rue d’amsterdam, where, in the wearisome loneliness of my sick-room, i get no scent, except it be, perhaps, the perfume of warmed towels. alas! god’s satire weighs heavily on me. the great author of the universe, the aristophanes of heaven, was bent on demonstrating, with crushing force, to me, the little, earthly, german aristophanes, how my wittiest sarcasms are only pitiful attempts at jesting in comparison with his, and how miserably i am beneath him in humor, in colossal mockery.”

for our own part, we regard the paradoxical irreverence with which heine professes his theoretical reverence as pathological, as the diseased exhibition of a predominant tendency urged into anomalous action by the pressure of pain and mental privation—as a delirium of wit starved of its proper nourishment. it is not for us to condemn, who have never had the same burden laid on us; it is not for pigmies at their ease to criticise the writhings of the titan chained to the rock.

on one other point we must touch before quitting heine’s personal history. there is a standing accusation against him in some quarters of wanting political principle, of wishing to denationalize himself, and of indulging in insults against his native country. whatever ground may exist for these accusations, that ground is not, so far as we see, to be found in his writings. he may not have much faith in german revolutions and revolutionists; experience, in his case as in that of others, may have thrown his millennial anticipations into more distant p. 131perspective; but we see no evidence that he has ever swerved from his attachment to the principles of freedom, or written anything which to a philosophic mind is incompatible with true patriotism. he has expressly denied the report that he wished to become naturalized in france; and his yearning toward his native land and the accents of his native language is expressed with a pathos the more reliable from the fact that he is sparing in such effusions. we do not see why heine’s satire of the blunders and foibles of his fellow-countrymen should be denounced as a crime of lèse-patrie, any more than the political caricatures of any other satirist. the real offences of heine are his occasional coarseness and his unscrupulous personalities, which are reprehensible, not because they are directed against his fellow-countrymen, but because they are personalities. that these offences have their precedents in men whose memory the world delights to honor does not remove their turpitude, but it is a fact which should modify our condemnation in a particular case; unless, indeed, we are to deliver our judgments on a principle of compensation—making up for our indulgence in one direction by our severity in another. on this ground of coarseness and personality, a true bill may be found against heine; not, we think, on the ground that he has laughed at what is laughable in his compatriots. here is a specimen of the satire under which we suppose german patriots wince:

“rhenish bavaria was to be the starting-point of the german revolution. zweibrücken was the bethlehem in which the infant saviour—freedom—lay in the cradle, and gave whimpering promise of redeeming the world. near his cradle bellowed many an ox, who afterward, when his horns were reckoned on, showed himself a very harmless brute. it was confidently believed that the german revolution would begin in zweibrücken, and everything was there ripe for an outbreak. but, as has been hinted, the tender-heartedness of some persons frustrated that illegal undertaking. for example, among the bipontine conspirators there was a tremendous braggart, who was always loudest in his rage, who boiled over with the hatred of tyranny, and this man was fixed on to strike the first blow, by p. 132cutting down a sentinel who kept an important post. . . . . ‘what!’ cried the man, when this order was given him—‘what!—me! can you expect so horrible, so bloodthirsty an act of me? i—i, kill an innocent sentinel? i, who am the father of a family! and this sentinel is perhaps also father of a family. one father of a family kill another father of a family? yes. kill—murder!’”

in political matters heine, like all men whose intellect and taste predominate too far over their impulses to allow of their becoming partisans, is offensive alike to the aristocrat and the democrat. by the one he is denounced as a man who holds incendiary principles, by the other as a half-hearted “trimmer.” he has no sympathy, as he says, with “that vague, barren pathos, that useless effervescence of enthusiasm, which plunges, with the spirit of a martyr, into an ocean of generalities, and which always reminds me of the american sailor, who had so fervent an enthusiasm for general jackson, that he at last sprang from the top of a mast into the sea, crying, “i die for general jackson!”

“but thou liest, brutus, thou liest, cassius, and thou, too, liest, asinius, in maintaining that my ridicule attacks those ideas which are the precious acquisition of humanity, and for which i myself have so striven and suffered. no! for the very reason that those ideas constantly hover before the poet in glorious splendor and majesty, he is the more irresistibly overcome by laughter when he sees how rudely, awkwardly, and clumsily those ideas are seized and mirrored in the contracted minds of contemporaries. . . . there are mirrors which have so rough a surface that even an apollo reflected in them becomes a caricature, and excites our laughter. but we laugh then only at the caricature, not at the god.”

for the rest, why should we demand of heine that he should be a hero, a patriot, a solemn prophet, any more than we should demand of a gazelle that it should draw well in harness? nature has not made him of her sterner stuff—not of iron and adamant, but of pollen of flowers, the juice of the grape, and puck’s mischievous brain, plenteously mixing also the dews of kindly affection and the gold-dust of noble thoughts. it is, after all, a tribute which his enemies pay him when they utter p. 133their bitterest dictum, namely, that he is “nur dichter”—only a poet. let us accept this point of view for the present, and, leaving all consideration of him as a man, look at him simply as a poet and literary artist.

heine is essentially a lyric poet. the finest products of his genius are

“short swallow flights of song that dip

their wings in tears, and skim away;”

and they are so emphatically songs that, in reading them, we feel as if each must have a twin melody born in the same moment and by the same inspiration. heine is too impressible and mercurial for any sustained production; even in his short lyrics his tears sometimes pass into laughter and his laughter into tears; and his longer poems, “atta troll” and “deutschland,” are full of ariosto-like transitions. his song has a wide compass of notes; he can take us to the shores of the northern sea and thrill us by the sombre sublimity of his pictures and dreamy fancies; he can draw forth our tears by the voice he gives to our own sorrows, or to the sorrows of “poor peter;” he can throw a cold shudder over us by a mysterious legend, a ghost story, or a still more ghastly rendering of hard reality; he can charm us by a quiet idyl, shake us with laughter at his overflowing fun, or give us a piquant sensation of surprise by the ingenuity of his transitions from the lofty to the ludicrous. this last power is not, indeed, essentially poetical; but only a poet can use it with the same success as heine, for only a poet can poise our emotion and expectation at such a height as to give effect to the sudden fall. heine’s greatest power as a poet lies in his simple pathos, in the ever-varied but always natural expression he has given to the tender emotions. we may perhaps indicate this phase of his genius by referring to wordsworth’s beautiful little poem, “she dwelt among the untrodden ways;” the conclusion—

“she dwelt alone, and few could know

when lucy ceased to be;

but she is in her grave, and, oh!

the difference to me”—

p. 134is entirely in heine’s manner; and so is tennyson’s poem of a dozen lines, called “circumstance.” both these poems have heine’s pregnant simplicity. but, lest this comparison should mislead, we must say that there is no general resemblance between either wordsworth, or tennyson, and heine. their greatest qualities lie quite a way from the light, delicate lucidity, the easy, rippling music, of heine’s style. the distinctive charm of his lyrics may best be seen by comparing them with goethe’s. both have the same masterly, finished simplicity and rhythmic grace; but there is more thought mingled with goethe’s feeling—his lyrical genius is a vessel that draws more water than heine’s, and, though it seems to glide along with equal ease, we have a sense of greater weight and force, accompanying the grace of its movements.

but for this very reason heine touches our hearts more strongly; his songs are all music and feeling—they are like birds that not only enchant us with their delicious notes, but nestle against us with their soft breasts, and make us feel the agitated beating of their hearts. he indicates a whole sad history in a single quatrain; there is not an image in it, not a thought; but it is beautiful, simple, and perfect as a “big round tear”—it is pure feeling, breathed in pure music:

“anfangs wollt’ ich fast verzagen

und ich glaubt’ ich trug es nie,

und ich hab’ es doch getragen—

aber fragt mich nur nicht, wie.” [134]

he excels equally in the more imaginative expression of feeling: he represents it by a brief image, like a finely cut cameo; he expands it into a mysterious dream, or dramatizes it in a little story, half ballad, half idyl; and in all these forms his art is so perfect that we never have a sense of artificiality or of unsuccessful effort; but all seems to have developed itself by the same beautiful necessity that brings forth vine-leaves and p. 135grapes and the natural curls of childhood. of heine’s humorous poetry, “deutschland” is the most charming specimen—charming, especially, because its wit and humor grow out of a rich loam of thought. “atta troll” is more original, more various, more fantastic; but it is too great a strain on the imagination to be a general favorite. we have said that feeling is the element in which heine’s poetic genius habitually floats; but he can occasionally soar to a higher region, and impart deep significance to picturesque symbolism; he can flash a sublime thought over the past and into the future; he can pour forth a lofty strain of hope or indignation. few could forget, after once hearing them, the stanzas at the close of “deutschland,” in which he warns the king of prussia not to incur the irredeemable hell which the injured poet can create for him—the singing flames of a dante’s terza rima!

“kennst du die h?lle des dante nicht,

die schrecklichen terzetten?

wen da der dichter hineingesperrt

den kann kein gott mehr retten.

“kein gott, kein heiland, erl?st ihn je

aus diesen singenden flammen!

nimm dich in acht, das wir dich nicht

zu solcher h?lle verdammen.” [135]

as a prosaist, heine is, in one point of view, even more distinguished than as a poet. the german language easily lends itself to all the purposes of poetry; like the ladies of the middle ages, it is gracious and compliant to the troubadours. but as these same ladies were often crusty and repulsive to their p. 136unmusical mates, so the german language generally appears awkward and unmanageable in the hands of prose writers. indeed, the number of really fine german prosaists before heine would hardly have exceeded the numerating powers of a new hollander, who can count three and no more. persons the most familiar with german prose testify that there is an extra fatigue in reading it, just as we feel an extra fatigue from our walk when it takes us over ploughed clay. but in heine’s hands german prose, usually so heavy, so clumsy, so dull, becomes, like clay in the hands of the chemist, compact, metallic, brilliant; it is german in an allotropic condition. no dreary labyrinthine sentences in which you find “no end in wandering mazes lost;” no chains of adjectives in linked harshness long drawn out; no digressions thrown in as parentheses; but crystalline definiteness and clearness, fine and varied rhythm, and all that delicate precision, all those felicities of word and cadence, which belong to the highest order of prose. and heine has proved—what madame de st?el seems to have doubted—that it is possible to be witty in german; indeed, in reading him, you might imagine that german was pre-eminently the language of wit, so flexible, so subtle, so piquant does it become under his management. he is far more an artist in prose than goethe. he has not the breadth and repose, and the calm development which belong to goethe’s style, for they are foreign to his mental character; but he excels goethe in susceptibility to the manifold qualities of prose, and in mastery over its effects. heine is full of variety, of light and shadow: he alternates between epigrammatic pith, imaginative grace, sly allusion, and daring piquancy; and athwart all these there runs a vein of sadness, tenderness, and grandeur which reveals the poet. he continually throws out those finely chiselled sayings which stamp themselves on the memory, and become familiar by quotation. for example: “the people have time enough, they are immortal; kings only are mortal.”—“wherever a great soul utters its thoughts, there is golgotha.”—“nature wanted to see how she looked, and she p. 137created goethe.”—“only the man who has known bodily suffering is truly a man; his limbs have their passion history, they are spiritualized.” he calls rubens “this flemish titan, the wings of whose genius were so strong that he soared as high as the sun, in spite of the hundred-weight of dutch cheeses that hung on his legs.” speaking of b?rne’s dislike to the calm creations of the true artist, he says, “he was like a child which, insensible to the glowing significance of a greek statue, only touches the marble and complains of cold.”

the most poetic and specifically humorous of heine’s prose writings are the “reisebilder.” the comparison with sterne is inevitable here; but heine does not suffer from it, for if he falls below sterne in raciness of humor, he is far above him in poetic sensibility and in reach and variety of thought. heine’s humor is never persistent, it never flows on long in easy gayety and drollery; where it is not swelled by the tide of poetic feeling, it is continually dashing down the precipice of a witticism. it is not broad and unctuous; it is a?rial and sprite-like, a momentary resting-place between his poetry and his wit. in the “reisebilder” he runs through the whole gamut of his powers, and gives us every hue of thought, from the wildly droll and fantastic to the sombre and the terrible. here is a passage almost dantesque in conception:

“alas! one ought in truth to write against no one in this world. each of us is sick enough in this great lazaretto, and many a polemical writing reminds me involuntarily of a revolting quarrel, in a little hospital at cracow, of which i chanced to be a witness, and where it was horrible to hear how the patients mockingly reproached each other with their infirmities: how one who was wasted by consumption jeered at another who was bloated by dropsy; how one laughed at another’s cancer in the nose, and this one again at his neighbor’s locked-jaw or squint, until at last the delirious fever-patient sprang out of bed and tore away the coverings from the wounded bodies of his companions, and nothing was to be seen but hideous misery and mutilation.”

and how fine is the transition in the very next chapter, p. 138where, after quoting the homeric description of the feasting gods, he says:

“then suddenly approached, panting, a pale jew, with drops of blood on his brow, with a crown of thorns on his head, and a great cross laid on his shoulders; and he threw the cross on the high table of the gods, so that the golden cups tottered, and the gods became dumb and pale, and grew ever paler, till they at last melted away into vapor.”

the richest specimens of heine’s wit are perhaps to be found in the works which have appeared since the “reisebilder.” the years, if they have intensified his satirical bitterness, have also given his wit a finer edge and polish. his sarcasms are so subtly prepared and so slily allusive, that they may often escape readers whose sense of wit is not very acute; but for those who delight in the subtle and delicate flavors of style, there can hardly be any wit more irresistible than heine’s. we may measure its force by the degree in which it has subdued the german language to its purposes, and made that language brilliant in spite of a long hereditary transmission of dulness. as one of the most harmless examples of his satire, take this on a man who has certainly had his share of adulation:

“assuredly it is far from my purpose to depreciate m. victor cousin. the titles of this celebrated philosopher even lay me under an obligation to praise him. he belongs to that living pantheon of france which we call the peerage, and his intelligent legs rest on the velvet benches of the luxembourg. i must indeed sternly repress all private feelings which might seduce me into an excessive enthusiasm. otherwise i might be suspected of servility; for m. cousin is very influential in the state by means of his position and his tongue. this consideration might even move me to speak of his faults as frankly as of his virtues. will he himself disapprove of this? assuredly not. i know that we cannot do higher honor to great minds than when we throw as strong a light on their demerits as on their merits. when we sing the praises of a hercules, we must also mention that he once laid aside the lion’s skin and sat down to the distaff: what then? he remains notwithstanding a hercules! so when we relate similar circumstances concerning m. cousin, we p. 139must nevertheless add, with discriminating eulogy: m. cousin, if he has sometimes sat twaddling at the distaff, has never laid aside the lion’s skin. . . . it is true that, having been suspected of demagogy, he spent some time in a german prison, just as lafayette and richard c?ur de lion. but that m. cousin there in his leisure hours studied kant’s ‘critique of pure reason’ is to be doubted on three grounds. first, this book is written in german. secondly, in order to read this book, a man must understand german. thirdly, m. cousin does not understand german. . . . i fear i am passing unawares from the sweet waters of praise into the bitter ocean of blame. yes, on one account i cannot refrain from bitterly blaming m. cousin—namely, that he who loves truth far more than he loves plato and tenneman is unjust to himself when he wants to persuade us that he has borrowed something from the philosophy of schelling and hegel. against this self-accusation i must take m. cousin under my protection. on my word and conscience! this honorable man has not stolen a jot from schelling and hegel, and if he brought home anything of theirs, it was merely their friendship. that does honor to his heart. but there are many instances of such false self-accusation in psychology. i knew a man who declared that he had stolen silver spoons at the king’s table; and yet we all knew that the poor devil had never been presented at court, and accused himself of stealing these spoons to make us believe that he had been a guest at the palace. no! in german philosophy m. cousin has always kept the sixth commandment; here he has never pocketed a single idea, not so much as a salt-spoon of an idea. all witnesses agree in attesting that in this respect m. cousin is honor itself. . . . i prophesy to you that the renown of m. cousin, like the french revolution, will go round the world! i hear some one wickedly add: undeniably the renown of m. cousin is going round the world, and it has already taken its departure from france.”

the following “symbolical myth” about louis philippe is very characteristic of heine’s manner:

“i remember very well that immediately on my arrival (in paris) i hastened to the palais royal to see louis philippe. the friend who conducted me told me that the king now appeared on the terrace only at stated hours, but that formerly he was to be seen at any time for five francs. ‘for five francs!’ i cried with amazement; ‘does he then show himself for money?’ ‘no, but he is shown for money, and it happens in this way: there is a society of claqueurs, marchands de contremarques, and such riff-raff, who offered every p. 140foreigner to show him the king for five francs: if he would give ten francs, he might see the king raise his eyes to heaven, and lay his hand protestingly on his heart; if he would give twenty francs, the king would sing the marseillaise. if the foreigner gave five francs, they raised a loud cheering under the king’s windows, and his majesty appeared on the terrace, bowed, and retired. if ten francs, they shouted still louder, and gesticulated as if they had been possessed, when the king appeared, who then, as a sign of silent emotion, raised his eyes to heaven and laid his hand on his heart. english visitors, however, would sometimes spend as much as twenty francs, and then the enthusiasm mounted to the highest pitch; no sooner did the king appear on the terrace than the marseillaise was struck up and roared out frightfully, until louis philippe, perhaps only for the sake of putting an end to the singing, bowed, laid his hand on his heart, and joined in the marseillaise. whether, as is asserted, he beat time with his foot, i cannot say.’”

one more quotation, and it must be our last:

“oh the women! we must forgive them much, for they love much—and many. their hate is properly only love turned inside out. sometimes they attribute some delinquency to us, because they think they can in this way gratify another man. when they write, they have always one eye on the paper and the other on a man; and this is true of all authoresses, except the countess hahn-hahn, who has only one eye.”