it is an interesting branch of psychological observation to note the images that are habitually associated with abstract or collective terms—what may be called the picture-writing of the mind, which it carries on concurrently with the more subtle symbolism of language. perhaps the fixity or variety of these associated images would furnish a tolerably fair test of the amount of concrete knowledge and experience which a given word represents, in the minds of two persons who use it with equal familiarity. the word railways, for example, will probably call up, in the mind of a man who is not highly locomotive, the image either of a “bradshaw,” or of the station with which he is most familiar, or of an indefinite length of tram-road; he will alternate between these three images, which represent his stock of concrete acquaintance with railways. but suppose a man to have had successively the experience of a “navvy,” an engineer, a traveller, a railway director and shareholder, and a landed proprietor in treaty with a railway company, and it is probable that the range of images which would by turns present themselves to his mind at the mention of the word “railways,” would include all the essential facts in the existence and relations of the thing. now it is possible for the first-mentioned personage to entertain very expanded views as to the multiplication of railways in the abstract, and their ultimate function in civilization. he may talk of a vast p. 142network of railways stretching over the globe, of future “lines” in madagascar, and elegant refreshment-rooms in the sandwich islands, with none the less glibness because his distinct conceptions on the subject do not extend beyond his one station and his indefinite length of tram-road. but it is evident that if we want a railway to be made, or its affairs to be managed, this man of wide views and narrow observation will not serve our purpose.

probably, if we could ascertain the images called up by the terms “the people,” “the masses,” “the proletariat,” “the peasantry,” by many who theorize on those bodies with eloquence, or who legislate without eloquence, we should find that they indicate almost as small an amount of concrete knowledge—that they are as far from completely representing the complex facts summed up in the collective term, as the railway images of our non-locomotive gentleman. how little the real characteristics of the working-classes are known to those who are outside them, how little their natural history has been studied, is sufficiently disclosed by our art as well as by our political and social theories. where, in our picture exhibitions, shall we find a group of true peasantry? what english artist even attempts to rival in truthfulness such studies of popular life as the pictures of teniers or the ragged boys of murillo? even one of the greatest painters of the pre-eminently realistic school, while, in his picture of “the hireling shepherd,” he gave us a landscape of marvellous truthfulness, placed a pair of peasants in the foreground who were not much more real than the idyllic swains and damsels of our chimney ornaments. only a total absence of acquaintance and sympathy with our peasantry could give a moment’s popularity to such a picture as “cross purposes,” where we have a peasant girl who looks as if she knew l. e. l.’s poems by heart, and english rustics, whose costume seems to indicate that they are meant for ploughmen, with exotic features that remind us of a handsome primo tenore. rather than such cockney sentimentality as this, as an education for the taste and sympathies, we p. 143prefer the most crapulous group of boors that teniers ever painted. but even those among our painters who aim at giving the rustic type of features, who are far above the effeminate feebleness of the “keepsake” style, treat their subjects under the influence of traditions and prepossessions rather than of direct observation. the notion that peasants are joyous, that the typical moment to represent a man in a smock-frock is when he is cracking a joke and showing a row of sound teeth, that cottage matrons are usually buxom, and village children necessarily rosy and merry, are prejudices difficult to dislodge from the artistic mind, which looks for its subjects into literature instead of life. the painter is still under the influence of idyllic literature, which has always expressed the imagination of the cultivated and town-bred, rather than the truth of rustic life. idyllic ploughmen are jocund when they drive their team afield; idyllic shepherds make bashful love under hawthorn bushes; idyllic villagers dance in the checkered shade and refresh themselves, not immoderately, with spicy nut-brown ale. but no one who has seen much of actual ploughmen thinks them jocund; no one who is well acquainted with the english peasantry can pronounce them merry. the slow gaze, in which no sense of beauty beams, no humor twinkles, the slow utterance, and the heavy, slouching walk, remind one rather of that melancholy animal the camel than of the sturdy countryman, with striped stockings, red waistcoat, and hat aside, who represents the traditional english peasant. observe a company of haymakers. when you see them at a distance, tossing up the forkfuls of hay in the golden light, while the wagon creeps slowly with its increasing burden over the meadow, and the bright green space which tells of work done gets larger and larger, you pronounce the scene “smiling,” and you think these companions in labor must be as bright and cheerful as the picture to which they give animation. approach nearer, and you will certainly find that haymaking time is a time for joking, especially if there are women among the laborers; but the coarse laugh that bursts out every now and then, and expresses p. 144the triumphant taunt, is as far as possible from your conception of idyllic merriment. that delicious effervescence of the mind which we call fun has no equivalent for the northern peasant, except tipsy revelry; the only realm of fancy and imagination for the english clown exists at the bottom of the third quart pot.

the conventional countryman of the stage, who picks up pocket-books and never looks into them, and who is too simple even to know that honesty has its opposite, represents the still lingering mistake, that an unintelligible dialect is a guarantee for ingenuousness, and that slouching shoulders indicate an upright disposition. it is quite true that a thresher is likely to be innocent of any adroit arithmetical cheating, but he is not the less likely to carry home his master’s corn in his shoes and pocket; a reaper is not given to writing begging-letters, but he is quite capable of cajoling the dairymaid into filling his small-beer bottle with ale. the selfish instincts are not subdued by the sight of buttercups, nor is integrity in the least established by that classic rural occupation, sheep-washing. to make men moral something more is requisite than to turn them out to grass.

opera peasants, whose unreality excites mr. ruskin’s indignation, are surely too frank an idealization to be misleading; and since popular chorus is one of the most effective elements of the opera, we can hardly object to lyric rustics in elegant laced boddices and picturesque motley, unless we are prepared to advocate a chorus of colliers in their pit costume, or a ballet of charwomen and stocking-weavers. but our social novels profess to represent the people as they are, and the unreality of their representations is a grave evil. the greatest benefit we owe to the artist, whether painter, poet, or novelist, is the extension of our sympathies. appeals founded on generalizations and statistics require a sympathy ready-made, a moral sentiment already in activity; but a picture of human life such as a great artist can give, surprises even the trivial and the selfish into that attention to what is a part from themselves, p. 145which may be called the raw material of moral sentiment. when scott takes us into luckie mucklebackit’s cottage, or tells the story of “the two drovers;” when wordsworth sings to us the reverie of “poor susan;” when kingsley shows us alton locke gazing yearningly over the gate which leads from the highway into the first wood he ever saw; when hornung paints a group of chimney-sweepers—more is done toward linking the higher classes with the lower, toward obliterating the vulgarity of exclusiveness, than by hundreds of sermons and philosophical dissertations. art is the nearest thing to life; it is a mode of amplifying experience and extending our contact with our fellow-men beyond the bounds of our personal lot. all the more sacred is the task of the artist when he undertakes to paint the life of the people. falsification here is far more pernicious than in the more artificial aspects of life. it is not so very serious that we should have false ideas about evanescent fashions—about the manners and conversation of beaux and duchesses; but it is serious that our sympathy with the perennial joys and struggles, the toil, the tragedy, and the humor in the life of our more heavily laden fellow-men, should be perverted, and turned toward a false object instead of the true one.

this perversion is not the less fatal because the misrepresentation which give rise to it has what the artist considers a moral end. the thing for mankind to know is, not what are the motives and influences which the moralist thinks ought to act on the laborer or the artisan, but what are the motives and influences which do act on him. we want to be taught to feel, not for the heroic artisan or the sentimental peasant, but for the peasant in all his coarse apathy, and the artisan in all his suspicious selfishness.

we have one great novelist who is gifted with the utmost power of rendering the external traits of our town population; and if he could give us their psychological character—their conception of life, and their emotions—with the same truth as their idiom and manners, his books would be the greatest contribution p. 146art has ever made to the awakening of social sympathies. but while he can copy mrs. plornish’s colloquial style with the delicate accuracy of a sun-picture, while there is the same startling inspiration in his description of the gestures and phrases of “boots,” as in the speeches of shakespeare’s mobs or numskulls, he scarcely ever passes from the humorous and external to the emotional and tragic, without becoming as transcendent in his unreality as he was a moment before in his artistic truthfulness. but for the precious salt of his humor, which compels him to reproduce external traits that serve in some degree as a corrective to his frequently false psychology, his preternaturally virtuous poor children and artisans, his melodramatic boatmen and courtesans, would be as obnoxious as eugène sue’s idealized proletaires, in encouraging the miserable fallacy that high morality and refined sentiment can grow out of harsh social relations, ignorance, and want; or that the working-classes are in a condition to enter at once into a millennial state of altruism, wherein every one is caring for everyone else, and no one for himself.

if we need a true conception of the popular character to guide our sympathies rightly, we need it equally to check our theories, and direct us in their application. the tendency created by the splendid conquests of modern generalization, to believe that all social questions are merged in economical science, and that the relations of men to their neighbors may be settled by algebraic equations—the dream that the uncultured classes are prepared for a condition which appeals principally to their moral sensibilities—the aristocractic dilettantism which attempts to restore the “good old times” by a sort of idyllic masquerading, and to grow feudal fidelity and veneration as we grow prize turnips, by an artificial system of culture—none of these diverging mistakes can coexist with a real knowledge of the people, with a thorough study of their habits, their ideas, their motives. the landholder, the clergyman, the mill-owner, the mining-agent, have each an opportunity for making precious observations on different sections p. 147of the working-classes, but unfortunately their experience is too often not registered at all, or its results are too scattered to be available as a source of information and stimulus to the public mind generally. if any man of sufficient moral and intellectual breadth, whose observations would not be vitiated by a foregone conclusion, or by a professional point of view, would devote himself to studying the natural history of our social classes, especially of the small shopkeepers, artisans, and peasantry—the degree in which they are influenced by local conditions, their maxims and habits, the points of view from which they regard their religious teachers, and the degree in which they are influenced by religious doctrines, the interaction of the various classes on each other, and what are the tendencies in their position toward disintegration or toward development—and if, after all this study, he would give us the result of his observation in a book well nourished with specific facts, his work would be a valuable aid to the social and political reformer.

what we are desiring for ourselves has been in some degree done for the germans by riehl, the author of the very remarkable books, the titles of which are placed at the head of this article; and we wish to make these books known to our readers, not only for the sake of the interesting matter they contain, and the important reflections they suggest, but also as a model for some future or actual student of our own people. by way of introducing riehl to those who are unacquainted with his writings, we will give a rapid sketch from his picture of the german peasantry, and perhaps this indication of the mode in which he treats a particular branch of his subject may prepare them to follow us with more interest when we enter on the general purpose and contents of his works.

in england, at present, when we speak of the peasantry we mean scarcely more than the class of farm-servants and farm-laborers; and it is only in the most primitive districts, as in wales, for example, that farmers are included under the term. in order to appreciate what riehl says of the german peasantry, p. 148we must remember what the tenant-farmers and small proprietors were in england half a century ago, when the master helped to milk his own cows, and the daughters got up at one o’clock in the morning to brew—when the family dined in the kitchen with the servants, and sat with them round the kitchen fire, in the evening. in those days, the quarried parlor was innocent of a carpet, and its only specimens of art were a framed sampler and the best tea-board; the daughters even of substantial farmers had often no greater accomplishment in writing and spelling than they could procure at a dame-school; and, instead of carrying on sentimental correspondence, they were spinning their future table-linen, and looking after every saving in butter and eggs that might enable them to add to the little stock of plate and china which they were laying in against their marriage. in our own day, setting aside the superior order of farmers, whose style of living and mental culture are often equal to that of the professional class in provincial towns, we can hardly enter the least imposing farm-house without finding a bad piano in the “drawing-room,” and some old annuals, disposed with a symmetrical imitation of negligence, on the table; though the daughters may still drop their h’s, their vowels are studiously narrow; and it is only in very primitive regions that they will consent to sit in a covered vehicle without springs, which was once thought an advance in luxury on the pillion.

the condition of the tenant-farmers and small proprietors in germany is, we imagine, about on a par, not, certainly, in material prosperity, but in mental culture and habits, with that of the english farmers who were beginning to be thought old-fashioned nearly fifty years ago, and if we add to these the farm servants and laborers we shall have a class approximating in its characteristics to the bauernthum, or peasantry, described by riehl.

in germany, perhaps more than in any other country, it is among the peasantry that we must look for the historical type of the national physique. in the towns this type has become p. 149so modified to express the personality of the individual that even “family likeness” is often but faintly marked. but the peasants may still be distinguished into groups, by their physical peculiarities. in one part of the country we find a longer-legged, in another a broader-shouldered race, which has inherited these peculiarities for centuries. for example, in certain districts of hesse are seen long faces, with high foreheads, long, straight noses, and small eyes, with arched eyebrows and large eyelids. on comparing these physiognomies with the sculptures in the church of st. elizabeth, at marburg, executed in the thirteenth century, it will be found that the same old hessian type of face has subsisted unchanged, with this distinction only, that the sculptures represent princes and nobles, whose features then bore the stamp of their race, while that stamp is now to be found only among the peasants. a painter who wants to draw medi?val characters with historic truth must seek his models among the peasantry. this explains why the old german painters gave the heads of their subjects a greater uniformity of type than the painters of our day; the race had not attained to a high degree of individualization in features and expression. it indicates, too, that the cultured man acts more as an individual, the peasant more as one of a group. hans drives the plough, lives, and thinks, just as kunz does; and it is this fact that many thousands of men are as like each other in thoughts and habits as so many sheep or oysters, which constitutes the weight of the peasantry in the social and political scale.

in the cultivated world each individual has his style of speaking and writing. but among the peasantry it is the race, the district, the province, that has its style—namely, its dialect, its phraseology, its proverbs, and its songs, which belong alike to the entire body of the people. this provincial style of the peasant is again, like his physique, a remnant of history, to which he clings with the utmost tenacity. in certain parts of hungary there are still descendants of german colonists of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, who go about p. 150the country as reapers, retaining their old saxon songs and manners, while the more cultivated german emigrants in a very short time forget their own language, and speak hungarian. another remarkable case of the same kind is that of the wends, a slavonic race settled in lusatia, whose numbers amount to 200,000, living either scattered among the german population or in separate parishes. they have their own schools and churches, and are taught in the slavonic tongue. the catholics among them are rigid adherents of the pope; the protestants not less rigid adherents of luther, or doctor luther, as they are particular in calling him—a custom which a hundred years ago was universal in protestant germany. the wend clings tenaciously to the usages of his church, and perhaps this may contribute not a little to the purity in which he maintains the specific characteristics of his race. german education, german law and government, service in the standing army, and many other agencies, are in antagonism to his national exclusiveness; but the wives and mothers here, as elsewhere, are a conservative influence, and the habits temporarily laid aside in the outer world are recovered by the fireside. the wends form several stout regiments in the saxon army; they are sought far and wide, as diligent and honest servants; and many a weakly dresden or leipzig child becomes thriving under the care of a wendish nurse. in their villages they have the air and habits of genuine sturdy peasants, and all their customs indicate that they have been from the first an agricultural people. for example, they have traditional modes of treating their domestic animals. each cow has its own name, generally chosen carefully, so as to express the special qualities of the animal; and all important family events are narrated to the bees—a custom which is found also in westphalia. whether by the help of the bees or not, the wend farming is especially prosperous; and when a poor bohemian peasant has a son born to him he binds him to the end of a long pole and turns his face toward lusatia, that he may be as lucky as the wends, who live there.

p. 151the peculiarity of the peasant’s language consists chiefly in his retention of historical peculiarities, which gradually disappear under the friction of cultivated circles. he prefers any proper name that may be given to a day in the calendar, rather than the abstract date, by which he very rarely reckons. in the baptismal names of his children he is guided by the old custom of the country, not at all by whim and fancy. many old baptismal names, formerly common in germany, would have become extinct but for their preservation among the peasantry, especially in north germany; and so firmly have they adhered to local tradition in this matter that it would be possible to give a sort of topographical statistics of proper names, and distinguish a district by its rustic names as we do by its flora and fauna. the continuous inheritance of certain favorite proper names in a family, in some districts, forces the peasant to adopt the princely custom of attaching a numeral to the name, and saying, when three generations are living at once, hans i., ii., and iii.; or—in the more antique fashion—hans the elder, the middle, and the younger. in some of our english counties there is a similar adherence to a narrow range of proper names, and a mode of distinguishing collateral branches in the same family, you will hear of jonathan’s bess, thomas’s bess, and samuel’s bess—the three bessies being cousins.

the peasant’s adherence to the traditional has much greater inconvenience than that entailed by a paucity of proper names. in the black forest and in hüttenberg you will see him in the dog-days wearing a thick fur cap, because it is an historical fur cap—a cap worn by his grandfather. in the wetterau, that peasant girl is considered the handsomest who wears the most petticoats. to go to field-labor in seven petticoats can be anything but convenient or agreeable, but it is the traditionally correct thing, and a german peasant girl would think herself as unfavorably conspicuous in an untraditional costume as an english servant-girl would now think herself in a “linsey-wolsey” apron or a thick muslin cap. in p. 152many districts no medical advice would induce the rustic to renounce the tight leather belt with which he injures his digestive functions; you could more easily persuade him to smile on a new communal system than on the unhistorical invention of braces. in the eighteenth century, in spite of the philanthropic preachers of potatoes, the peasant for years threw his potatoes to the pigs and the dogs, before he could be persuaded to put them on his own table. however, the unwillingness of the peasant to adopt innovations has a not unreasonable foundation in the fact that for him experiments are practical, not theoretical, and must be made with expense of money instead of brains—a fact that is not, perhaps, sufficiently taken into account by agricultural theorists, who complain of the farmer’s obstinacy. the peasant has the smallest possible faith in theoretic knowledge; he thinks it rather dangerous than otherwise, as is well indicated by a lower rhenish proverb—“one is never too old to learn, said an old woman; so she learned to be a witch.”

between many villages an historical feud, once perhaps the occasion of much bloodshed, is still kept up under the milder form of an occasional round of cudgelling and the launching of traditional nicknames. an historical feud of this kind still exists, for example, among many villages on the rhine and more inland places in the neighborhood. rheinschnacke (of which the equivalent is perhaps “water-snake”) is the standing term of ignominy for the inhabitant of the rhine village, who repays it in kind by the epithet “karst” (mattock), or “kukuk” (cuckoo), according as the object of his hereditary hatred belongs to the field or the forest. if any romeo among the “mattocks” were to marry a juliet among the “water-snakes,” there would be no lack of tybalts and mercutios to carry the conflict from words to blows, though neither side knows a reason for the enmity.

a droll instance of peasant conservatism is told of a village on the taunus, whose inhabitants, from time immemorial, had been famous for impromptu cudgelling. for this historical p. 153offence the magistrates of the district had always inflicted the equally historical punishment of shutting up the most incorrigible offenders, not in prison, but in their own pig-sty. in recent times, however, the government, wishing to correct the rudeness of these peasants, appointed an “enlightened” man as a magistrate, who at once abolished the original penalty above mentioned. but this relaxation of punishment was so far from being welcome to the villagers that they presented a petition praying that a more energetic man might be given them as a magistrate, who would have the courage to punish according to law and justice, “as had been beforetime.” and the magistrate who abolished incarceration in the pig-sty could never obtain the respect of the neighborhood. this happened no longer ago than the beginning of the present century.

but it must not be supposed that the historical piety of the german peasant extends to anything not immediately connected with himself. he has the warmest piety toward the old tumble-down house which his grandfather built, and which nothing will induce him to improve, but toward the venerable ruins of the old castle that overlooks his village he has no piety at all, and carries off its stones to make a fence for his garden, or tears down the gothic carving of the old monastic church, which is “nothing to him,” to mark off a foot-path through his field. it is the same with historical traditions. the peasant has them fresh in his memory, so far as they relate to himself. in districts where the peasantry are unadulterated, you can discern the remnants of the feudal relations in innumerable customs and phrases, but you will ask in vain for historical traditions concerning the empire, or even concerning the particular princely house to which the peasant is subject. he can tell you what “half people and whole people” mean; in hesse you will still hear of “four horses making a whole peasant,” or of “four-day and three-day peasants;” but you will ask in vain about charlemagne and frederic barbarossa.

riehl well observes that the feudal system, which made the peasant the bondman of his lord, was an immense benefit in a p. 154country, the greater part of which had still to be colonized—rescued the peasant from vagabondage, and laid the foundation of persistency and endurance in future generations. if a free german peasantry belongs only to modern times, it is to his ancestor who was a serf, and even, in the earliest times, a slave, that the peasant owes the foundation of his independence, namely, his capability of a settled existence—nay, his unreasoning persistency, which has its important function in the development of the race.

perhaps the very worst result of that unreasoning persistency is the peasant’s inveterate habit of litigation. every one remembers the immortal description of dandle dinmont’s importunate application to lawyer pleydell to manage his “bit lawsuit,” till at length pleydell consents to help him to ruin himself, on the ground that dandle may fall into worse hands. it seems this is a scene which has many parallels in germany. the farmer’s lawsuit is his point of honor; and he will carry it through, though he knows from the very first day that he shall get nothing by it. the litigious peasant piques himself, like mr. saddletree, on his knowledge of the law, and this vanity is the chief impulse to many a lawsuit. to the mind of the peasant, law presents itself as the “custom of the country,” and it is his pride to be versed in all customs. custom with him holds the place of sentiment, of theory, and in many cases of affection. riehl justly urges the importance of simplifying law proceedings, so as to cut off this vanity at its source, and also of encouraging, by every possible means, the practice of arbitration.

the peasant never begins his lawsuit in summer, for the same reason that he does not make love and marry in summer—because he has no time for that sort of thing. anything is easier to him than to move out of his habitual course, and he is attached even to his privations. some years ago a peasant youth, out of the poorest and remotest region of the westerwald, was enlisted as a recruit, at weilburg in nassau. the lad, having never in his life slept in a bed, when he had got p. 155into one for the first time began to cry like a child; and he deserted twice because he could not reconcile himself to sleeping in a bed, and to the “fine” life of the barracks: he was homesick at the thought of his accustomed poverty and his thatched hut. a strong contrast, this, with the feeling of the poor in towns, who would be far enough from deserting because their condition was too much improved! the genuine peasant is never ashamed of his rank and calling; he is rather inclined to look down on every one who does not wear a smock frock, and thinks a man who has the manners of the gentry is likely to be rather windy and unsubstantial. in some places, even in french districts, this feeling is strongly symbolized by the practice of the peasantry, on certain festival days, to dress the images of the saints in peasant’s clothing. history tells us of all kinds of peasant insurrections, the object of which was to obtain relief for the peasants from some of their many oppressions; but of an effort on their part to step out of their hereditary rank and calling, to become gentry, to leave the plough and carry on the easier business of capitalists or government functionaries, there is no example.

the german novelists who undertake to give pictures of peasant-life fall into the same mistake as our english novelists: they transfer their own feelings to ploughmen and woodcutters, and give them both joys and sorrows of which they know nothing. the peasant never questions the obligation of family ties—he questions no custom—but tender affection, as it exists among the refined part of mankind, is almost as foreign to him as white hands and filbert-shaped nails. that the aged father who has given up his property to his children on condition of their maintaining him for the remainder of his life, is very far from meeting with delicate attentions, is indicated by the proverb current among the peasantry—“don’t take your clothes off before you go to bed.” among rustic moral tales and parables, not one is more universal than the story of the ungrateful children, who made their gray-headed father, dependent on them for a maintenance, eat at a wooden trough p. 156because he shook the food out of his trembling hands. then these same ungrateful children observed one day that their own little boy was making a tiny wooden trough; and when they asked him what it was for, he answered—that his father and mother might eat out of it, when he was a man and had to keep them.

marriage is a very prudential affair, especially among the peasants who have the largest share of property. politic marriages are as common among them as among princes; and when a peasant-heiress in westphalia marries, her husband adopts her name, and places his own after it with the prefix geborner (née). the girls marry young, and the rapidity with which they get old and ugly is one among the many proofs that the early years of marriage are fuller of hardships than of conjugal tenderness. “when our writers of village stories,” says riehl, “transferred their own emotional life to the peasant, they obliterated what is precisely his most predominant characteristic, namely, that with him general custom holds the place of individual feeling.”

we pay for greater emotional susceptibility too often by nervous diseases of which the peasant knows nothing. to him headache is the least of physical evils, because he thinks head-work the easiest and least indispensable of all labor. happily, many of the younger sons in peasant families, by going to seek their living in the towns, carry their hardy nervous system to amalgamate with the overwrought nerves of our town population, and refresh them with a little rude vigor. and a return to the habits of peasant life is the best remedy for many moral as well as physical diseases induced by perverted civilization. riehl points to colonization as presenting the true field for this regenerative process. on the other side of the ocean a man will have the courage to begin life again as a peasant, while at home, perhaps, opportunity as well as courage will fail him. apropos of this subject of emigration, he remarks the striking fact, that the native shrewdness and mother-wit of the german peasant seem to forsake him entirely when he has to apply p. 157them under new circumstances, and on relations foreign to his experience. hence it is that the german peasant who emigrates, so constantly falls a victim to unprincipled adventurers in the preliminaries to emigration; but if once he gets his foot on the american soil he exhibits all the first-rate qualities of an agricultural colonist; and among all german emigrants the peasant class are the most successful.

but many disintegrating forces have been at work on the peasant character, and degeneration is unhappily going on at a greater pace than development. in the wine districts especially, the inability of the small proprietors to bear up under the vicissitudes of the market, or to insure a high quality of wine by running the risks of a late vintage and the competition of beer and cider with the inferior wines, have tended to produce that uncertainty of gain which, with the peasant, is the inevitable cause of demoralization. the small peasant proprietors are not a new class in germany, but many of the evils of their position are new. they are more dependent on ready money than formerly; thus, where a peasant used to get his wood for building and firing from the common forest, he has now to pay for it with hard cash; he used to thatch his own house, with the help perhaps of a neighbor, but now he pays a man to do it for him; he used to pay taxes in kind, he now pays them in money. the chances of the market have to be discounted, and the peasant falls into the hands of money-lenders. here is one of the cases in which social policy clashes with a purely economical policy.

political vicissitudes have added their influence to that of economical changes in disturbing that dim instinct, that reverence for traditional custom, which is the peasant’s principle of action. he is in the midst of novelties for which he knows no reason—changes in political geography, changes of the government to which he owes fealty, changes in bureaucratic management and police regulations. he finds himself in a new element before an apparatus for breathing in it is developed in him. his only knowledge of modern history is p. 158in some of its results—for instance, that he has to pay heavier taxes from year to year. his chief idea of a government is of a power that raises his taxes, opposes his harmless customs, and torments him with new formalities. the source of all this is the false system of “enlightening” the peasant which has been adopted by the bureaucratic governments. a system which disregards the traditions and hereditary attachments of the peasant, and appeals only to a logical understanding which is not yet developed in him, is simply disintegrating and ruinous to the peasant character. the interference with the communal regulations has been of this fatal character. instead of endeavoring to promote to the utmost the healthy life of the commune, as an organism the conditions of which are bound up with the historical characteristics of the peasant, the bureaucratic plan of government is bent on improvement by its patent machinery of state-appointed functionaries and off-hand regulations in accordance with modern enlightenment. the spirit of communal exclusiveness—the resistance to the indiscriminate establishment of strangers, is an intense traditional feeling in the peasant. “this gallows is for us and our children,” is the typical motto of this spirit. but such exclusiveness is highly irrational and repugnant to modern liberalism; therefore a bureaucratic government at once opposes it, and encourages to the utmost the introduction of new inhabitants in the provincial communes. instead of allowing the peasants to manage their own affairs, and, if they happen to believe that five and four make eleven, to unlearn the prejudice by their own experience in calculation, so that they may gradually understand processes, and not merely see results, bureaucracy comes with its “ready reckoner” and works all the peasant’s sums for him—the surest way of maintaining him in his stupidity, however it may shake his prejudice.

another questionable plan for elevating the peasant is the supposed elevation of the clerical character by preventing the clergyman from cultivating more than a trifling part of the land attached to his benefice; that he may be as much as possible of p. 159a scientific theologian, and as little as possible of a peasant. in this, riehl observes, lies one great source of weakness to the protestant church as compared with the catholic, which finds the great majority of its priests among the lower orders; and we have had the opportunity of making an analogous comparison in england, where many of us can remember country districts in which the great mass of the people were christianized by illiterate methodist and independent ministers, while the influence of the parish clergyman among the poor did not extend much beyond a few old women in scarlet cloaks and a few exceptional church-going laborers.

bearing in mind the general characteristics of the german peasant, it is easy to understand his relation to the revolutionary ideas and revolutionary movements of modern times. the peasant, in germany as elsewhere, is a born grumbler. he has always plenty of grievances in his pocket, but he does not generalize those grievances; he does not complain of “government” or “society,” probably because he has good reason to complain of the burgomaster. when a few sparks from the first french revolution fell among the german peasantry, and in certain villages of saxony the country people assembled together to write down their demands, there was no glimpse in their petition of the “universal rights of man,” but simply of their own particular affairs as saxon peasants. again, after the july revolution of 1830, there were many insignificant peasant insurrections; but the object of almost all was the removal of local grievances. toll-houses were pulled down; stamped paper was destroyed; in some places there was a persecution of wild boars, in others, of that plentiful tame animal, the german rath, or councillor who is never called into council. but in 1848 it seemed as if the movements of the peasants had taken a new character; in the small western states of germany it seemed as if the whole class of peasantry was in insurrection. but, in fact, the peasant did not know the meaning of the part he was playing. he had heard that everything was being set right in the towns, and that wonderful things were happening p. 160there, so he tied up his bundle and set off. without any distinct object or resolution, the country people presented themselves on the scene of commotion, and were warmly received by the party leaders. but, seen from the windows of ducal palaces and ministerial hotels, these swarms of peasants had quite another aspect, and it was imagined that they had a common plan of co-operation. this, however, the peasants have never had. systematic co-operation implies general conceptions, and a provisional subordination of egoism, to which even the artisans of towns have rarely shown themselves equal, and which are as foreign to the mind of the peasant as logarithms or the doctrine of chemical proportions. and the revolutionary fervor of the peasant was soon cooled. the old mistrust of the towns was reawakened on the spot. the tyrolese peasants saw no great good in the freedom of the press and the constitution, because these changes “seemed to please the gentry so much.” peasants who had given their voices stormily for a german parliament asked afterward, with a doubtful look, whether it were to consist of infantry or cavalry. when royal domains were declared the property of the state, the peasants in some small principalities rejoiced over this, because they interpreted it to mean that every one would have his share in them, after the manner of the old common and forest rights.

the very practical views of the peasants with regard to the demands of the people were in amusing contrast with the abstract theorizing of the educated townsmen. the peasant continually withheld all state payments until he saw how matters would turn out, and was disposed to reckon up the solid benefit, in the form of land or money, that might come to him from the changes obtained. while the townsman was heating his brains about representation on the broadest basis, the peasant asked if the relation between tenant and landlord would continue as before, and whether the removal of the “feudal obligations” meant that the farmer should become owner of the land!

p. 161it is in the same na?ve way that communism is interpreted by the german peasantry. the wide spread among them of communistic doctrines, the eagerness with which they listened to a plan for the partition of property, seemed to countenance the notion that it was a delusion to suppose the peasant would be secured from this intoxication by his love of secure possession and peaceful earnings. but, in fact, the peasant contemplated “partition” by the light of an historical reminiscence rather than of novel theory. the golden age, in the imagination of the peasant, was the time when every member of the commune had a right to as much wood from the forest as would enable him to sell some, after using what he wanted in firing—in which the communal possessions were so profitable that, instead of his having to pay rates at the end of the year, each member of the commune was something in pocket. hence the peasants in general understood by “partition,” that the state lands, especially the forests, would be divided among the communes, and that, by some political legerdemain or other, everybody would have free fire-wood, free grazing for his cattle, and over and above that, a piece of gold without working for it. that he should give up a single clod of his own to further the general “partition” had never entered the mind of the peasant communist; and the perception that this was an essential preliminary to “partition” was often a sufficient cure for his communism.

in villages lying in the neighborhood of large towns, however, where the circumstances of the peasantry are very different, quite another interpretation of communism is prevalent. here the peasant is generally sunk to the position of the proletaire living from hand to mouth: he has nothing to lose, but everything to gain by “partition.” the coarse nature of the peasant has here been corrupted into bestiality by the disturbance of his instincts, while he is as yet incapable of principles; and in this type of the degenerate peasant is seen the worst example of ignorance intoxicated by theory.

a significant hint as to the interpretation the peasants put p. 162on revolutionary theories may be drawn from the way they employed the few weeks in which their movements were unchecked. they felled the forest trees and shot the game; they withheld taxes; they shook off the imaginary or real burdens imposed on them by their mediatized princes, by presenting their “demands” in a very rough way before the ducal or princely “schloss;” they set their faces against the bureaucratic management of the communes, deposed the government functionaries who had been placed over them as burgomasters and magistrates, and abolished the whole bureaucratic system of procedure, simply by taking no notice of its regulations, and recurring to some tradition—some old order or disorder of things. in all this it is clear that they were animated not in the least by the spirit of modern revolution, but by a purely narrow and personal impulse toward reaction.

the idea of constitutional government lies quite beyond the range of the german peasant’s conceptions. his only notion of representation is that of a representation of ranks—of classes; his only notion of a deputy is of one who takes care, not of the national welfare, but of the interests of his own order. herein lay the great mistake of the democratic party, in common with the bureaucratic governments, that they entirely omitted the peculiar character of the peasant from their political calculations. they talked of the “people” and forgot that the peasants were included in the term. only a baseless misconception of the peasant’s character could induce the supposition that he would feel the slightest enthusiasm about the principles involved in the reconstitution of the empire, or even about the reconstitution itself. he has no zeal for a written law, as such, but only so far as it takes the form of a living law—a tradition. it was the external authority which the revolutionary party had won in baden that attracted the peasants into a participation of the struggle.

such, riehl tells us, are the general characteristics of the german peasantry—characteristics which subsist amid a wide p. 163variety of circumstances. in mecklenburg, pomerania, and brandenburg the peasant lives on extensive estates; in westphalia he lives in large isolated homesteads; in the westerwald and in sauerland, in little groups of villages and hamlets; on the rhine land is for the most part parcelled out among small proprietors, who live together in large villages. then, of course, the diversified physical geography of germany gives rise to equally diversified methods of land-culture; and out of these various circumstances grow numerous specific differences in manner and character. but the generic character of the german peasant is everywhere the same; in the clean mountain hamlet and in the dirty fishing village on the coast; in the plains of north germany and in the backwoods of america. “everywhere he has the same historical character—everywhere custom is his supreme law. where religion and patriotism are still a na?ve instinct, are still a sacred custom, there begins the class of the german peasantry.”

our readers will perhaps already have gathered from the foregoing portrait of the german peasant that riehl is not a man who looks at objects through the spectacles either of the doctrinaire or the dreamer; and they will be ready to believe what he tells us in his preface, namely, that years ago he began his wanderings over the hills and plains of germany for the sake of obtaining, in immediate intercourse with the people, that completion of his historical, political, and economical studies which he was unable to find in books. he began his investigations with no party prepossessions, and his present views were evolved entirely from his own gradually amassed observations. he was, first of all, a pedestrian, and only in the second place a political author. the views at which he has arrived by this inductive process, he sums up in the term—social-political-conservatism; but his conservatism is, we conceive, of a thoroughly philosophical kind. he sees in european society incarnate history, and any attempt to disengage it from its historical elements must, he believes, be simply destructive of p. 164social vitality. [164] what has grown up historically can only die out historically, by the gradual operation of necessary laws. the external conditions which society has inherited from the past are but the manifestation of inherited internal conditions in the human beings who compose it; the internal conditions and the external are related to each other as the organism and its medium, and development can take place only by the gradual consentaneous development of both. take the familiar example of attempts to abolish titles, which have been about as effective as the process of cutting off poppy-heads in a cornfield. jedem menschem, says riehl, ist sein zopf angeboren, warum soll denn der sociale sprachgebrauch nicht auch sein zopf haben?—which we may render—“as long as snobism runs in the blood, why should it not run in our speech?” as a necessary preliminary to a purely rational society, you must obtain purely rational men, free from the sweet and bitter prejudices of hereditary affection and antipathy; which is as easy as to get running streams without springs, or the leafy shade of the forest without the secular growth of trunk and branch.

the historical conditions of society may be compared with those of language. it must be admitted that the language of cultivated nations is in anything but a rational state; the great sections of the civilized world are only approximatively intelligible to each other, and even that only at the cost of long study; one word stands for many things, and many words for one thing; the subtle shades of meaning, and still subtler echoes of association, make language an instrument which scarcely anything short of genius can wield with definiteness and certainty. suppose, then, that the effect which has been again and again made to construct a universal language on a rational basis has at length succeeded, and that you have a language which has no uncertainty, no whims of idiom, no cumbrous forms, no fitful simmer of many-hued significance, p. 165no hoary archaisms “familiar with forgotten years”—a patent deodorized and non-resonant language, which effects the purpose of communication as perfectly and rapidly as algebraic signs. your language may be a perfect medium of expression to science, but will never express life, which is a great deal more than science. with the anomalies and inconveniences of historical language you will have parted with its music and its passions, and its vital qualities as an expression of individual character, with its subtle capabilities of wit, with everything that gives it power over the imagination; and the next step in simplification will be the invention of a talking watch, which will achieve the utmost facility and despatch in the communication of ideas by a graduated adjustment of ticks, to be represented in writing by a corresponding arrangement of dots. a melancholy “language of the future!” the sensory and motor nerves that run in the same sheath are scarcely bound together by a more necessary and delicate union than that which binds men’s affections, imagination, wit and humor, with the subtle ramifications of historical language. language must be left to grow in precision, completeness, and unity, as minds grow in clearness, comprehensiveness, and sympathy. and there is an analogous relation between the moral tendencies of men and the social conditions they have inherited. the nature of european men has its roots intertwined with the past, and can only be developed by allowing those roots to remain undisturbed while the process of development is going on until that perfect ripeness of the seed which carries with it a life independent of the root. this vital connection with the past is much more vividly felt on the continent than in england, where we have to recall it by an effort of memory and reflection; for though our english life is in its core intensely traditional, protestantism and commerce have modernized the face of the land and the aspects of society in a far greater degree than in any continental country:

“abroad,” says ruskin, “a building of the eighth or tenth century stands ruinous in the open streets; the children play round it, p. 166the peasants heap their corn in it, the buildings of yesterday nestle about it, and fit their new stones in its rents, and tremble in sympathy as it trembles. no one wonders at it, or thinks of it as separate, and of another time; we feel the ancient world to be a real thing; and one with the new; antiquity is no dream; it is rather the children playing about the old stones that are the dream. but all is continuous; and the words “from generation to generation” understandable here.”

this conception of european society as incarnate history is the fundamental idea of riehl’s books. after the notable failure of revolutionary attempts conducted from the point of view of abstract democratic and socialistic theories, after the practical demonstration of the evils resulting from a bureaucratic system, which governs by an undiscriminating, dead mechanism, riehl wishes to urge on the consideration of his countrymen a social policy founded on the special study of the people as they are—on the natural history of the various social ranks. he thinks it wise to pause a little from theorizing, and see what is the material actually present for theory to work upon. it is the glory of the socialists—in contrast with the democratic doctrinaires who have been too much occupied with the general idea of “the people” to inquire particularly into the actual life of the people—that they have thrown themselves with enthusiastic zeal into the study at least of one social group, namely, the factory operatives; and here lies the secret of their partial success. but, unfortunately, they have made this special duty of a single fragment of society the basis of a theory which quietly substitutes for the small group of parisian proletaires or english factory-workers the society of all europe—nay, of the whole world. and in this way they have lost the best fruit of their investigations. for, says riehl, the more deeply we penetrate into the knowledge of society in its details, the more thoroughly we shall be convinced that a universal social policy has no validity except on paper, and can never be carried into successful practice. the conditions of german society are altogether different from those of french, of english, or of italian society; and to apply the same social theory to these p. 167nations indiscriminately is about as wise a procedure as triptolemus yellowley’s application of the agricultural directions in virgil’s “georgics” to his farm in the shetland isles.

it is the clear and strong light in which riehl places this important position that in our opinion constitutes the suggestive value of his books for foreign as well as german readers. it has not been sufficiently insisted on, that in the various branches of social science there is an advance from the general to the special, from the simple to the complex, analogous with that which is found in the series of the sciences, from mathematics to biology. to the laws of quantity comprised in mathematics and physics are superadded, in chemistry, laws of quality; to these again are added, in biology, laws of life; and lastly, the conditions of life in general branch out into its special conditions, or natural history, on the one hand, and into its abnormal conditions, or pathology, on the other. and in this series or ramification of the sciences, the more general science will not suffice to solve the problems of the more special. chemistry embraces phenomena which are not explicable by physics; biology embraces phenomena which are not explicable by chemistry; and no biological generalization will enable us to predict the infinite specialities produced by the complexity of vital conditions. so social science, while it has departments which in their fundamental generality correspond to mathematics and physics, namely, those grand and simple generalizations which trace out the inevitable march of the human race as a whole, and, as a ramification of these, the laws of economical science, has also, in the departments of government and jurisprudence, which embrace the conditions of social life in all their complexity, what may be called its biology, carrying us on to innumerable special phenomena which outlie the sphere of science, and belong to natural history. and just as the most thorough acquaintance with physics, or chemistry, or general physiology, will not enable you at once to establish the balance of life in your private vivarium, so that your particular society of zoophytes, mollusks, and echinoderms p. 168may feel themselves, as the germans say, at ease in their skin; so the most complete equipment of theory will not enable a statesman or a political and social reformer to adjust his measures wisely, in the absence of a special acquaintance with the section of society for which he legislates, with the peculiar characteristics of the nation, the province, the class whose well-being he has to consult. in other words, a wise social policy must be based not simply on abstract social science, but on the natural history of social bodies.

riehl’s books are not dedicated merely to the argumentative maintenance of this or of any other position; they are intended chiefly as a contribution to that knowledge of the german people on the importance of which he insists. he is less occupied with urging his own conclusions than with impressing on his readers the facts which have led him to those conclusions. in the volume entitled “land und leute,” which, though published last, is properly an introduction to the volume entitled “die bürgerliche gesellschaft,” he considers the german people in their physical geographical relations; he compares the natural divisions of the race, as determined by land and climate, and social traditions, with the artificial divisions which are based on diplomacy; and he traces the genesis and influences of what we may call the ecclesiastical geography of germany—its partition between catholicism and protestantism. he shows that the ordinary antithesis of north and south germany represents no real ethnographical distinction, and that the natural divisions of germany, founded on its physical geography are threefold—namely, the low plains, the middle mountain region, and the high mountain region, or lower, middle, and upper germany; and on this primary natural division all the other broad ethnographical distinctions of germany will be found to rest. the plains of north or lower germany include all the seaboard the nation possesses; and this, together with the fact that they are traversed to the depth of 600 miles by navigable rivers, makes them the natural seat of a trading race. quite different is the geographical character of p. 169middle germany. while the northern plains are marked off into great divisions, by such rivers as the lower rhine, the weser, and the oder, running almost in parallel lines, this central region is cut up like a mosaic by the capricious lines of valleys and rivers. here is the region in which you find those famous roofs from which the rain-water runs toward two different seas, and the mountain-tops from which you may look into eight or ten german states. the abundance of water-power and the presence of extensive coal-mines allow of a very diversified industrial development in middle germany. in upper germany, or the high mountain region, we find the same symmetry in the lines of the rivers as in the north; almost all the great alpine streams flow parallel with the danube. but the majority of these rivers are neither navigable nor available for industrial objects, and instead of serving for communication they shut off one great tract from another. the slow development, the simple peasant life of many districts is here determined by the mountain and the river. in the south-east, however, industrial activity spreads through bohemia toward austria, and forms a sort of balance to the industrial districts of the lower rhine. of course, the boundaries of these three regions cannot be very strictly defined; but an approximation to the limits of middle germany may be obtained by regarding it as a triangle, of which one angle lies in silesia, another in aix-la-chapelle, and a third at lake constance.

this triple division corresponds with the broad distinctions of climate. in the northern plains the atmosphere is damp and heavy; in the southern mountain region it is dry and rare, and there are abrupt changes of temperature, sharp contrasts between the seasons, and devastating storms; but in both these zones men are hardened by conflict with the roughness of the climate. in middle germany, on the contrary, there is little of this struggle; the seasons are more equable, and the mild, soft air of the valleys tends to make the inhabitants luxurious and sensitive to hardships. it is only in exceptional mountain districts that one is here reminded of the rough, bracing air on p. 170the heights of southern germany. it is a curious fact that, as the air becomes gradually lighter and rarer from the north german coast toward upper germany, the average of suicides regularly decreases. mecklenburg has the highest number, then prussia, while the fewest suicides occur in bavaria and austria.

both the northern and southern regions have still a large extent of waste lands, downs, morasses, and heaths; and to these are added, in the south, abundance of snow-fields and naked rock; while in middle germany culture has almost over-spread the face of the land, and there are no large tracts of waste. there is the same proportion in the distribution of forests. again, in the north we see a monotonous continuity of wheat-fields, potato-grounds, meadow-lands, and vast heaths, and there is the same uniformity of culture over large surfaces in the southern table-lands and the alpine pastures. in middle germany, on the contrary, there is a perpetual variety of crops within a short space; the diversity of land surface and the corresponding variety in the species of plants are an invitation to the splitting up of estates, and this again encourages to the utmost the motley character of the cultivation.

according to this threefold division, it appears that there are certain features common to north and south germany in which they differ from central germany, and the nature of this difference riehl indicates by distinguishing the former as centralized land and the latter as individualized land; a distinction which is well symbolized by the fact that north and south germany possess the great lines of railway which are the medium for the traffic of the world, while middle germany is far richer in lines for local communication, and possesses the greatest length of railway within the smallest space. disregarding superficialities, the east frieslanders, the schleswig-holsteiners, the mecklenburghers, and the pomeranians are much more nearly allied to the old bavarians, the tyrolese, and the styrians than any of these are allied to the saxons, the thuringians, or the rhinelanders. both in north and p. 171south germany original races are still found in large masses, and popular dialects are spoken; you still find there thoroughly peasant districts, thorough villages, and also, at great intervals, thorough cities; you still find there a sense of rank. in middle germany, on the contrary, the original races are fused together or sprinkled hither and thither; the peculiarities of the popular dialects are worn down or confused; there is no very strict line of demarkation between the country and the town population, hundreds of small towns and large villages being hardly distinguishable in their characteristics; and the sense of rank, as part of the organic structure of society, is almost extinguished. again, both in the north and south there is still a strong ecclesiastical spirit in the people, and the pomeranian sees antichrist in the pope as clearly as the tyrolese sees him in doctor luther; while in middle germany the confessions are mingled, they exist peaceably side by side in very narrow space, and tolerance or indifference has spread itself widely even in the popular mind. and the analogy, or rather the causal relation between the physical geography of the three regions and the development of the population goes still further:

“for,” observes riehl, “the striking connection which has been pointed out between the local geological formations in germany and the revolutionary disposition of the people has more than a metaphorical significance. where the primeval physical revolutions of the globe have been the wildest in their effects, and the most multiform strata have been tossed together or thrown one upon the other, it is a very intelligible consequence that on a land surface thus broken up, the population should sooner develop itself into small communities, and that the more intense life generated in these smaller communities should become the most favorable nidus for the reception of modern culture, and with this a susceptibility for its revolutionary ideas; while a people settled in a region where its groups are spread over a large space will persist much more obstinately in the retention of its original character. the people of middle germany have none of that exclusive one-sidedness which determines the peculiar genius of great national groups, just as this one-sidedness or uniformity is wanting to the geological and geographical character of their land.”

p. 172this ethnographical outline riehl fills up with special and typical descriptions, and then makes it the starting-point for a criticism of the actual political condition of germany. the volume is full of vivid pictures, as well as penetrating glances into the maladies and tendencies of modern society. it would be fascinating as literature if it were not important for its facts and philosophy. but we can only commend it to our readers, and pass on to the volume entitled “die bürgerliche gesellschaft,” from which we have drawn our sketch of the german peasantry. here riehl gives us a series of studies in that natural history of the people which he regards as the proper basis of social policy. he holds that, in european society, there are three natural ranks or estates: the hereditary landed aristocracy, the citizens or commercial class, and the peasantry or agricultural class. by natural ranks he means ranks which have their roots deep in the historical structure of society, and are still, in the present, showing vitality above ground; he means those great social groups which are not only distinguished externally by their vocation, but essentially by their mental character, their habits, their mode of life—by the principle they represent in the historical development of society. in his conception of the “fourth estate” he differs from the usual interpretation, according to which it is simply equivalent to the proletariat, or those who are dependent on daily wages, whose only capital is their skill or bodily strength—factory operatives, artisans, agricultural laborers, to whom might be added, especially in germany, the day-laborers with the quill, the literary proletariat. this, riehl observes, is a valid basis of economical classification, but not of social classification. in his view, the fourth estate is a stratum produced by the perpetual abrasion of the other great social groups; it is the sign and result of the decomposition which is commencing in the organic constitution of society. its elements are derived alike from the aristocracy, the bourgeoisie, and the peasantry. it assembles under its banner the deserters of historical society, and forms them into a terrible army, p. 173which is only just awaking to the consciousness of its corporate power. the tendency of this fourth estate, by the very process of its formation, is to do away with the distinctive historical character of the other estates, and to resolve their peculiar rank and vocation into a uniform social relation founded on an abstract conception of society. according to riehl’s classification, the day-laborers, whom the political economist designates as the fourth estate, belong partly to the peasantry or agricultural class, and partly to the citizens or commercial class.

riehl considers, in the first place, the peasantry and aristocracy as the “forces of social persistence,” and, in the second, the bourgeoisie and the “fourth estate” as the “forces of social movement.”

the aristocracy, he observes, is the only one among these four groups which is denied by others besides socialists to have any natural basis as a separate rank. it is admitted that there was once an aristocracy which had an intrinsic ground of existence, but now, it is alleged, this is an historical fossil, an antiquarian relic, venerable because gray with age. it what, it is asked, can consist the peculiar vocation of the aristocracy, since it has no longer the monopoly of the land, of the higher military functions, and of government offices, and since the service of the court has no longer any political importance? to this riehl replies, that in great revolutionary crises, the “men of progress” have more than once “abolished” the aristocracy. but, remarkably enough, the aristocracy has always reappeared. this measure of abolition showed that the nobility were no longer regarded as a real class, for to abolish a real class would be an absurdity. it is quite possible to contemplate a voluntary breaking up of the peasant or citizen class in the socialistic sense, but no man in his senses would think of straightway “abolishing” citizens and peasants. the aristocracy, then, was regarded as a sort of cancer, or excrescence of society. nevertheless, not only has it been found impossible to annihilate an hereditary nobility by decree, but p. 174also the aristocracy of the eighteenth century outlived even the self-destructive acts of its own perversity. a life which was entirely without object, entirely destitute of functions, would not, says riehl, be so persistent. he has an acute criticism of those who conduct a polemic against the idea of an hereditary aristocracy while they are proposing an “aristocracy of talent,” which after all is based on the principle of inheritance. the socialists are, therefore, only consistent in declaring against an aristocracy of talent. “but when they have turned the world into a great foundling hospital they will still be unable to eradicate the ‘privileges of birth.’” we must not follow him in his criticism, however; nor can we afford to do more than mention hastily his interesting sketch of the medi?val aristocracy, and his admonition to the german aristocracy of the present day, that the vitality of their class is not to be sustained by romantic attempts to revive medi?val forms and sentiments, but only by the exercise of functions as real and salutary for actual society as those of the medi?val aristocracy were for the feudal age. “in modern society the divisions of rank indicate division of labor, according to that distribution of functions in the social organism which the historical constitution of society has determined. in this way the principle of differentiation and the principle of unity are identical.”

the elaborate study of the german bourgeoisie, which forms the next division of the volume, must be passed over, but we may pause a moment to note riehl’s definition of the social philister (philistine), an epithet for which we have no equivalent, not at all, however, for want of the object it represents. most people who read a little german know that the epithet philister originated in the burschen-leben, or student-life of germany, and that the antithesis of bursch and philister was equivalent to the antithesis of “gown” and “town;” but since the word has passed into ordinary language it has assumed several shades of significance which have not yet been merged into a single, absolute meaning; and one of the questions p. 175which an english visitor in germany will probably take an opportunity of asking is, “what is the strict meaning of the word philister?” riehl’s answer is, that the philister “is one who is indifferent to all social interests, all public life, as distinguished from selfish and private interests; he has no sympathy with political and social events except as they affect his own comfort and prosperity, as they offer him material for amusement or opportunity for gratifying his vanity. he has no social or political creed, but is always of the opinion which is most convenient for the moment. he is always in the majority, and is the main element of unreason and stupidity in the judgment of a “discerning public.” it seems presumptuous in us to dispute riehl’s interpretation of a german word, but we must think that, in literature, the epithet philister has usually a wider meaning than this—includes his definition and something more. we imagine the philister is the personification of the spirit which judges everything from a lower point of view than the subject demands; which judges the affairs of the parish from the egotistic or purely personal point of view; which judges the affairs of the nation from the parochial point of view, and does not hesitate to measure the merits of the universe from the human point of view. at least this must surely be the spirit to which goethe alludes in a passage cited by riehl himself, where he says that the germans need not be ashamed of erecting a monument to him as well as to blucher; for if blucher had freed them from the french, he (goethe) had freed them from the nets of the philister:

“ihr m?gt mirimmer ungescheut

gleich blüchern denkmal setzen!

von franzosen hat er euch befreit,

ich von philister-netzen.”

goethe could hardly claim to be the apostle of public spirit; but he is eminently the man who helps us to rise to a lofty point of observation, so that we may see things in their relative proportions.

the most interesting chapters in the description of the p. 176“fourth estate,” which concludes the volume, are those on the “aristocratic proletariat” and the “intellectual proletariat.” the fourth estate in germany, says riehl, has its centre of gravity not, as in england and france, in the day laborers and factory operatives, and still less in the degenerate peasantry. in germany the educated proletariat is the leaven that sets the mass in fermentation; the dangerous classes there go about, not in blouses, but in frock coats; they begin with the impoverished prince and end in the hungriest littérateur. the custom that all the sons of a nobleman shall inherit their father’s title necessarily goes on multiplying that class of aristocrats who are not only without function but without adequate provision, and who shrink from entering the ranks of the citizens by adopting some honest calling. the younger son of a prince, says riehl, is usually obliged to remain without any vocation; and however zealously he may study music, painting, literature, or science, he can never be a regular musician, painter, or man of science; his pursuit will be called a “passion,” not a “calling,” and to the end of his days he remains a dilettante. “but the ardent pursuit of a fixed practical calling can alone satisfy the active man.” direct legislation cannot remedy this evil. the inheritance of titles by younger sons is the universal custom, and custom is stronger than law. but if all government preference for the “aristocratic proletariat” were withdrawn, the sensible men among them would prefer emigration, or the pursuit of some profession, to the hungry distinction of a title without rents.

the intellectual proletaires riehl calls the “church militant” of the fourth estate in germany. in no other country are they so numerous; in no other country is the trade in material and industrial capital so far exceeded by the wholesale and retail trade, the traffic and the usury, in the intellectual capital of the nation. germany yields more intellectual produce than it can use and pay for.

“this over-production, which is not transient but permanent, nay, is constantly on the increase, evidences a diseased state of the national p. 177industry, a perverted application of industrial powers, and is a far more pungent satire on the national condition than all the poverty of operatives and peasants. . . . other nations need not envy us the preponderance of the intellectual proletariat over the proletaires of manual labor. for man more easily becomes diseased from over-study than from the labor of the hands; and it is precisely in the intellectual proletariat that there are the most dangerous seeds of disease. this is the group in which the opposition between earnings and wants, between the ideal social position and the real, is the most hopelessly irreconcilable.”

we must unwillingly leave our readers to make acquaintance for themselves with the graphic details with which riehl follows up this general statement; but before quitting these admirable volumes, let us say, lest our inevitable omissions should have left room for a different conclusion, that riehl’s conservatism is not in the least tinged with the partisanship of a class, with a poetic fanaticism for the past, or with the prejudice of a mind incapable of discerning the grander evolution of things to which all social forms are but temporarily subservient. it is the conservatism of a clear-eyed, practical, but withal large-minded man—a little caustic, perhaps, now and then in his epigrams on democratic doctrinaires who have their nostrum for all political and social diseases, and on communistic theories which he regards as “the despair of the individual in his own manhood, reduced to a system,” but nevertheless able and willing to do justice to the elements of fact and reason in every shade of opinion and every form of effort. he is as far as possible from the folly of supposing that the sun will go backward on the dial because we put the hands of our clock backward; he only contends against the opposite folly of decreeing that it shall be mid-day while in fact the sun is only just touching the mountain-tops, and all along the valley men are stumbling in the twilight.